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GIFT   OF 
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X 


CITRUS  FRUITS 


AND 


THEIR  CULTURE 


BY 


H.  HAROLD  HUME, 

Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Botany  in 
The  University  of  Florida. 

Horticulturist  and  Botanist  of 
The  Florida  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


NEW  YORK: 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY. 
1913 


Qrec^qe.  - 


COPYRIGHTED    1904 

BY 

H.    HAROLD    HUME. 
Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 

FIFTH   EDITION 
1913 


RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED 

TO  MY  FRIEND 

GEORGE    LINDLEY    TABER 
WHOSE   INSPIRATION  HAS   MADE   THIS   VOLUME   POSSIBLE 


814974 


PREFACE. 


I 

I 


The  closing  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  have 
seen  great  changes  in  the  principles  of  citrus  fruit  culture 
in  America.  Twenty  years  ago  the  amount  of  fruit  pro- 
duced  was  comparatively  small,  now  the  industry  has  at- 
tained a  place  among  the  large  horticultural  industries  of 
this  country.  Then,  at  most,  a  few  hundred  boxes  of  fruit 
were  produced  annually;  now  the  crop  is  counted  not  by 
hundreds  but  by  millions  of  boxes.  The  pomelo  was  scarce- 
r  known  and  the  lemon  was  a  fruit  imported  almost  en- 
tn^ly  from  the  Old  World.  Then,  the  means  of  transporta- 
tion closed  many  a  desirable  tract  of  land  through  which 
the  railroad  now  runs  and  from  which  large  quantities  of 
fruit  are  now  shipped.  Then,  the  methods  of  combating 
insects  and  fungous  diseases  were  less  perfectly  under- 
stood than  now.  In  those  days,  the  fertilizers  applied  to 
the  soil  were  mostly  made  at  home,  now  the  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potash,  deemed  so  essential  for  the  production 
of  first-class  fruit,  in  many  districts,  can  be  obtained  as 
commercial  commodities  in  any  market.  Numerous  de- 
vices are  now  successfully  employed  in  protecting  trees 
and  fruit  against  the  effects  of  frost  and  freeze,  then,  noth- 
ing of  the  kind  was  attempted  or  in  fact  deemed  neces- 
sary. Then,  cover  crops  were  not  considered  in  the  light  in 
which  they  now  are.  Then,  the  citrus  industry  in  the  New 
rld  was  more  or  less  firmly  linked  to  that  of  the  Old.' 
we  have  an  American  industry  on  the  large,  broad 
American  progress. 


Vi  PREFACE. 

During  these  past  twenty  years  no  work  dealing 
with  the  fruits  of  the  genus  citrus  has  been  produced. 
The  literature  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  growth,  the  de- 
velopment, and  the  new  phases  of  the  industry.  To  fill  a 
long-felt  want,  this  volume  after  many  urgent  appeals 
from  those  interested  in  and  engaged  in  the  industry  has 
been  produced  in  the  hope  that  it  may,  in  some  measure  at 
least,  supply  the  lack  of  reliable,  up-to-date  information. 

In  its  preparation  the  author  has  had  the  hearty  co- 
operation, assistance  and  sympathy  of  many  friends.  The 
chapter  on  Fertilizers  and  Fertilizing  has  been  reviewed  by 
Prof.  H.  K.  Miller,  of  the  University  of  Florida,  that  on 
Cover  Crops,  by  Prof.,  John  Craig,  of  Cornell  University, 
while  the  chapter  on  Insects  Injurious  to  Citrus  Trees,  has 
been  revised  and  largely  re-written  from  his  former  publi 
cations,  by  Prof.  H.  A.  Gossard,  of  the  University  of  Flor 
ida.  The  chapter  on  Pot  Culture  of  Citrus  Fruits,  has 
been  revised  by  Mr.  E.  N.  Reasoner,  of  Oneco,  Fla.  Dr. 
N.  L.  Britton,  Dr.  D.  T.  MacDougal  and  Miss  Anna  Mur 
ray  Vail,  of  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden,  have  made  it 
possible  to  examine  the  older  works  on  citrus  fruits,  and 
have  rendered  much  valuable  assistance.  Prof.  A.  W. 
Blair,  of  the  University  of  Florida,  has  contributed  an 
analysis  of  one  of  the  cover  crops,  heretofore  unpublished. 
All  the  drawings  and  some  of  the  photographs  used  in  the 
illustrations  were  made  by  Miss  Lucia  McCulloch  for- 
merly assistant  in  the  Department  of  Botany  and  Horti- 
culture in  the  University  of  Florida.  Prof.  Dorsey  now 
of  the  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  New  York,  contrib 
uted  a  number  of  photographs,  while  those  illustrating 
California  scenes  were  secured  through  the  kindness  of 
Prof.  C.  W.  Woodworth,  of  the  University  of  California, 


PREFACE.  VII 

Mr.  John  Isaacs,  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Horti- 
culture and  Mr.  W.  J.  Allen,  of  Bonita,  Cal. 

All  photographs  reproduced  in  this  book,  except  where 
otherwise  acknowledged,  are  from  negatives  belonging  to 
the  Florida  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  for  permis- 
sion to  use  which,  thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  T.  H.  Taliaferro, 
director  of  the  Florida  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
Mr.  W.  S.  Hart,  of  Hawks  Park,  Fla.;  Mr.  E.  S.  Hub- 
bard,  of  Federal  Point,  Fla. ;  Mr.  G.  L.  Taber,  of  Glen  St. 
Mary,  Fla.,  and  many  others,  whose  names  are  not  here 
mentioned,  have  assisted  very  materially  in  many  ways. 

The  substance  of  a  number  of  the  bulletins  of  the 
Florida  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  been  used 
without  denoting  the  source  from  which  it  is  derived. 

Every  effort  has  been  made  to  eliminate  mistakes,  but 
some,  doubtless,  remain  embodied  in  the  work.  The  au- 
thor will  certainly  appreciate  it  as  a  favor  if  any  reader 
noting  these  will  kindly  point  them  out  that  they  may  be 
corrected  in  future  editions. 

H.  HAROLD  HUME. 

University  of  Florida,  Lake  City,  Fla. 
December  1st,  1903. 


vlu  PREFACE. 

PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 

The  first  edition  of  "Citrus  Fruits  and  Their  Cul- 
ture," published  a  little  over  three  years  ago,  being  ex- 
hausted, a  second  edition  is  called  for.  A  number  of 
errors  occurring  in  the  first  edition  have  been  corrected 
and  by  the  addition  of  some  new  material  the  volume  has 
for  the  most  part  been  brought  thoroughly  up  to  date.  In 
presenting  the  second  edition  the  writer  begs  to  acknowl- 
edge his  indebtedness  for  many  courtesies,  particularly 
from  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart,  Hawks  Park,  Fla.,  and  the  Rev. 
C.  J.  K.  Jones,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  and  hopes  that  the 
edition  may  meet  with  the  same  cordial  reception  as  the 
first. 

H.  H.  H. 

Glen  Saint  Mary,  Fla. 

August  6th,  1907. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 

There  are  more  people  interested  in  the  cultivation 
of  citrus  fruits  now  than  at  any  previous  time,  and  the 
demand  for  information  is  more  insistent  than  ever  before. 
It  is  in  the  belief  that  this  volume  will  still  prove  help- 
ful to  those  engaged  in  or  about  to  engage  in  the  indus- 
try, that  the  third  edition  is  now  given  to  the  public. 

H.  H.  H. 
Glen  Saint  Mary,  Fla. 

November  20,  1909. 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 

CONTENTS. 

PART  I. 

BOTANY,  HISTORY,  VARIETIES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

Commercial  Status  of  Citrus  Culture 1-6 

Distribution  of  citrus  fruits— Fruit  as  first  used  in  re- 
gions where  grown — American  markets  supplied  with 
Mediterranean  fruit — Development  of  the  industry- 
Recent  developments — Lemons  in  California — Pomelos  in 
Florida— Output  of  citrus  fruits  from  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia—Advance in  cultural  methods— Personal  factor  in 
success — Markets  not  all  supplied — The  outlook. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Citrus    Relationships 7-10 

Family  Rutacew — Mostly  native  of  tropical  regions — Citrus 
not  indigenous  in  America — Leaves  of  plants  allied  to 
Citrus— Evolution  of  citrus  leaf— Lemon  farthest  removed 
from  ancestral  type. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Botany   of   Citrus    Fruits 11-20 

The  problem  of  classification — The  latest  system— Wild 
forms  mostly  extinct — Different  forms  regarded  as  spe- 
cies— Native  home  of  citrus — Confusion  in  naming  the 
lemons  and  limes — Oil-cells  not  distinctive — Juice-sacks 
useful  in  classification — Family  Rutacew —  Genus  Citrus — 
Description  of  species  cultivated  in  America. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Trifoliate  Orange 21-24 

Useless  commercially  except  for  stocks — Hybrids  between 
trifoliate  and  sweet  oranges— First  mention  of  trifoliate 
orange  in  literature — Its  nomenclature — Introduction 
into  America. 


x  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Bigarade  Oranges 25-26 

The  group  name — Confused  with  the  sweet  oranges — 
Entitled  to  specific  rank — Brought  to  America  by  Span- 
iards— Important  as  a  stock. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The   Sweet   Oranges 27-34 

Names  used  by  other  writers — Introduction  into  Europe 
— Introduction  into  America — Introduction  into  Califor- 
nia— The  most  important  citrus  fruit — Number  of  varie- 
ties— Grouping  the  sweet  oranges — Spanish  oranges  char- 
acterized— Mediterranean  oranges  described — Blood  or- 
anges characterized — Navel  oranges  characterized — Navel 
oranges  in  Florida  and  California — The  navel  orange  in 
literature. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The    Mandarin    Oranges 35-42 

Mandarin  oranges  distinct  from  sweet  oranges — The 
group  name  and  its  significance — Its  origin — History  of 
the  group — Introduction  into  America — More  important 
in  Florida  than  in  California— Essentially  a  fancy  fruit 
— Horticultural  status  of  the  group. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Pomelos 43-50 

The  name — Origin  of  the  name — The  commercial  name 
— Origin  of  the  cognomen,  grapefruit — Synonymy — Shad- 
dock a  distinct  fruit  horticulturally — Pomelo  the  best 
name — Horticultural  status — Spanish  introduction — Fruit 
wasted  for  years — The  judgment  of  earlier  writers — 
First  marketed  between  1880  and  1885 —  Downward  trend 
of  prices — The  Florida  pomelo — Superior  as  a  breakfast 
fruit. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Shaddocks 51-52 

Introduction  and  origin  of  name — Not  important  commer- 
cially—Distinct from  the  pomelo— Characteristics  of  the 
fruit — May  be  used  as  a  stock. 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  X. 

The  Kumquats 53-58 

The  common  name — Kumquat  literature — Introduction 
into  Europe  by  Mr.  Fortune — Introduction  into  America 
— Measurements  of  large  kumquat  shrubs — A  hardy  group 
of  fruits — Mr.  Fortune's  observations — How  eaten — A 
Fancy  fruit  only. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

The  Citrons 59-60 

Only  citrus  mentioned  in  ancient  literature — Introduc- 
tion into  America — Relative  importance  of  the  citron — 
Importations  of  citron  peel — Future  of  citron  culture. 

CHAPTER  XII 

The    Lemons 61-63' 

Introduction  into  Europe — Mentioned  by  early  writers 
— Introduction  into  America — Recent  introductions — The 
lemon  in  Florida — Development  of  California  lemon  in- 
dustry— Lemon  culture  in  the  Islands — Uses  of  the  lemon 
— Lemon  susceptible  to  mal-di-goma. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Limes , 64-66 

Acid  limes  only  grown  in  America — Confused  with  the 
lemons — Introduced  into  America  by  the  Spaniards — 
Tree  very  tender — Adapted  to  poor  soils — Variations  in 
Mexican  lime — Room  for  improvement — Uses. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Trifoliate  Orange  Group — Varieties 67-68 

Description  of  Trifoliate  orange  and  its  hybrids. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Bigarade  Orange  Group — Varieties 69-71 

Bigarade  oranges  described. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  Sweet  Oranges — Varieties 72-98 

Varieties  of  Sweet  oranges  described. 
CHAPTER  XVII. 

Mandarin   Oranges— Varieties 99-113 

The  varieties  of  Mandarin  oranges  described. 


xii  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Pomelo    Group — Varieties 114-126 

Varieties  of  Pomelos  described. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Shaddock  Group — Varieties 127-128 

The  Shaddocks  described. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Kumquat  Group— Varieties 129-131 

The  Kumquats  described. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Citron  Group — Varieties 132-133 

The  Citrons  described. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

Lemon  Group — Varieties 134-140 

The  different  varieties  of  Lemons  described. 
CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Lime   Group — Varieties 141-144 

The  varieties  of  Limes  described. 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Originating  New  Varieties 145-154 

Bud-Variation — Hybrids — Crosses— The  parts  of  the 
flower — Cross-pollination — Mode  of  operation — Emascula- 
tion— Pollination. 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Judging  Citrus  Fruits 155-164 

Official  scale  and  rules  of  the  Florida  State  Horticultural 
Society  for  judging  citrus  fruits — California  scales  and 
rules — California  orange  scale — California  lemon  scale 
— Proposed  pomelo  scale. 


PART  II. 

CULTURAL. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Propagation   of   Citrus   Trees 167-196 

Advantages  of  budded  over  seedling  trees — Citrus  seeds 
used  in  propagation  and  their  care — The  nursery  and  its 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

care  —  Propagation  by  cuttings  —  Selecting,  cutting  and 
keeping  budwood  and  cions  —  Materials  and  tools  used  in 
performing  the  work  —  Grafting-wax  —  Budding-knives  — 
Shears—  Grafting-iron  —  Shield-budding  —  Shield-budding 
with  a  right-angled  incision  —  Shield-budding  with  a 
curved  incision  —  Cleft-grafting  —  Whip-grafting  —  Crown- 
grafting  —  Sprig-grafting  —  Inarching. 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Stocks  for  Citrus  Trees  ..................................  197-218 

Soil  adaptations  —  Mutual  influence  of  stock  and  cion  — 
Sour   orange    stock  —  Rough    lemon   stock  —  Trifoliate    or- 
ange stock  —  Mr.  Taber's  experimental  grove  —  Sweet  or- 
ange stock  —  Pomelo  stock  —  Lime  stock. 
CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Citrus  Soils  .............................................  219-224 

The  ideal  soil  —  Florida  Soils  —  High  pine  land—  Flat 
woods  land  —  High  hammock  land  —  Low  hammock  land 
Louisiana  soils  —  California  soils  —  Mesas  —  Foot-hills. 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Locating  the   Citrus   Grove  ..............................  225-232 

Carrying  quality  of  the  fruit  —  Transportation  —  Frosts  — 
Air  drainage  —  Timber  belts  —  Wind-breaks  —  Irrigation  — 
Insects. 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

Preparations  for  Planting  ...............................  233-246 

Clearing  the  land  —  Cultivation  previous  to  planting  — 
Grove  plans  —  Triangular  system  —  Square  system  —  Hex- 
agonal system  —  Quincunx  system  —  Number  of  trees  per 
acre  —  Hedge  plantings  —  Double  plantings  —  Leveling  and 
smoothing  —  Distances  apart  —  Laying  out  before  plant- 
ing —  Laying  out  with  the  plow  —  Laying  out  in  rectangles 
with  a  wire  —  Laying  out  in  triangles  —  Laying  out  in  hex- 
agons —  Laying  out  in  quincunx. 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

Setting  the  Grove  .......................................  247-262 

Selecting  varieties  —  Adaptation  of  varieties  —  Relative 
members  of  varieties  —  Purchasing  trees  —  Buy  early  — 
Substitution  —  The  unaccredited  tree  peddler  —  Visit  the 


Xiv  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

nursery — The  best  tree — Prices — Best  time  to  plant — 
Planting — Root  trimming — Planting  board — Watering — 
Protecting  the  trunks — Pruning  the  tops — The  Reed 
method  of  transplanting — Labels  and  maps. 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

Cultivation  of  Citrus  Groves 263-284 

Benefits  of  tillage — Clean  culture  or  no  culture — Effects 
of  cultivation — An  experiment — Humus  and  its  value — 
Depth  of  cultivation  in  Florida — Depth  of  cultivation  in 
California  and  Arizona— Frequency  of  cultivation— Culti- 
vation in  relation  to  irrigation — "Hard-pan"  or  "plow 
sole" — Cultivation  in  relation  to  dormancy  and  frosts — 
The  die-back  problem — Implements. 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

Cover    Crops 285-296 

Advantages  of  cover  crops — Classes  of  cover  crops — Valu- 
able cover  crops — Velvet  bean — Nitrogen  collected — Baron 
von  Luttichau's  experience — Insects  and  cover  crops — 
Beggarweed — Analysis  of  beggarweed — Treatment  of  beg- 
garweed — Sand-spurs  and  crab-grass — Cover  crops  in  Cal- 
ifornia. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

Fertilizers  and  Fertilizing 297-318 

Analyses  of  citrus  fruits — Amounts  of  fertilizer  removed 
by  the  crop — Functions  of  phosphoric  acid — Functions 
of  potash — Functions  of  nitrogen — Functions  of  lime — 
Sources  of  plant  food — Sources  of  phosphoric  acid — 
Sources  of  potash — Sources  of  nitrogen — Formulas — 
Differences  in  requirements  of  young  and  old  trees — 
Formulas  for  young  and  bearing  trees — Amounts  of  fer- 
tilizer— Applying  fertilizers. 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

The  Irrigation  of  Citrus  Groves 319-336 

The  water  factor — Amount  of  water  necessary — Precipi- 
tation in  Florida — Florida  artesian  area — Pumping 
water — Applying  water — Irrigation  in  California  and 
Arizona — Amount  of  water  used  in  California — Furrow 
irrigation — Check  system  in  California. 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 
CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

Frost    Protection 337-374 

Warnings  —  Thermometers  —  Thermostats  —  Injurious 
temperatures — Effects  of  cold  on  the  leaves — Effects  of 
cold  on  the  twigs — Effects  of  cold  on  the  trunk — Effects 
of  cold  on  the  fruit — Conditions  when  most  resistant — 
The  insect  factor — The  food  factor — Dormancy  as  a 
factor  —  Fertilizers  and  cultivation  in  relation  to 
dormancy — Effects  of  the  stock  on  the  hardiness  of  the 
top — Hardy  varieties— Banking  to  save  the  trunks — 
Protecting  the  whole  tree  with  earth — Fires — Kindling 
— The  McKinney  grove — Coal  and  oil — California  exper- 
iments— Walls  and  fires — Wind-breaks  and  water  pro- 
tection— Irrigating — MacFarland's  tent — Painter's  tent — 
Sheds — Florida  experiences — Results  in  California. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

Pruning  Citrus   Trees 375-392 

Pruning  not  always  necessary — High  vs.  low-headed 
trees — Pruning  for  insect  treatment — Pruning  in  relation 
to  die-back — Pruning  frozen  trees — Wiring  sprouts  from 
frozen  trees — Pruning  tools — General  remarks — Time  for 
pruning — Baronio  system  of  lemon  pruning — Open-center 
system  of  lemon  pruning — Other  systems. 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

Pot  Culture  of  Citrus  Trees 393-398 

Stocks  of  potted  trees — Soil — Size  of  pots — Specimens 
for  flowers — Varieties  recommended — Fertilizing — Water- 
ing— Rest — Insects. 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

Handling  the  Citrus  Crop 401-462 

Early  experiences — Time  of  picking — Clippers — Field 
boxes— Mr.  Hart's  field  box — Picking  bags  or  baskets — 
Rattan  baskets — Ladders — Field  wagons — Pickers  and 
picking — Curing — Washing — Effects  and  need  of  cur- 
ing —  Curing  lemons  —  California  experience  —  Lemon 
packing-houses — Methods  of  packing  lemons — Refrigera- 
tion not  practicable — Grades  of  fruit — Grading — Time  to 
grade— Sizers  and  sizing— Packing — Mr.  Bean's  expert- 


XVI  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

ence — Citrus  fruit  packages — Florida  and  California 
standard  packages — Making  packages — Paper— Packing 
conveniences — Packing — Packing  diagrams — Headers  or 
presses — Packing  don'ts — Stenciling  —  Packing-houses 
— Shipping — The  private  trade — Commission  merchants 
— Irresponsible  firms — Dividing  shipments — Spasmodic 
shipments — Choose  a  trade-mark — Associations. 

PART  III. 

DISEASES  AND  INSECTS. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

Fungous  and  Physiological  Diseases 465-492 

Fungous  diseases :  Foot-rot — Scab — Leaf -spot — Ripe-rot 
— Sooty-mold — Fly-speck  fungus  —  Melanose — Lichens — 
Physiological  diseases:  Die-back — Blight. 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Citrus  Trees 493-522 

Insects  classified — Biting  insects:  Grasshoppers — The 
orange-dog — Armored  scales:  The  purple  scale — Long 
scale — Red  scale  of  Florida — Red  scale  of  California — 
Chaff  scale — Orange  snow  scale — Unarmored  scales: 
Turtle-back  scale— Black  scale— Wax  or  white  scale — Bar- 
nacle scale — Cottony-cushion  scale — Mealy-bug — Sucking 
insects  other  than  scales:  White-fly — Orange  rust-mite 
and  lemon  silver-mite — Six-spotted  mite — Purple  mite  or 
Red  spider. 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

Formulas  for  Spraying  Mixtures 523-532 

Bordeaux  mixture — Ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  car- 
bonate—Lime, crude  carbolic  acid  and  salt — Crude  car- 
bolic acid  solution — Sulphurous  acid  solution — Resin 
wash — Kerosene  emulsion — Good's  caustic  potash  whale- 
oil  soap — Kahle's  distillate  solution — Soda-sulphur  solu- 
tion— Sulphur-lime  solution — Potash  whale-oil  soap  and 
soda-sulphur  solution — Griddle  mixture. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

CHAPTER  XLIII. 
Spraying  and  Fumigating  ...............................  533-542 

Spraying:  Engines  —  Number  of  sprayings  —  Spraying 
for  rust-mite  —  Fumigating:  Tents  and  treatment  — 
Chemicals  and  amounts  —  Dosage. 

CHAPTER  XLIV. 
Fungous  and  Insect  Friends  .............................  543-552 

Conditions  favoring  insect  control  by  natural  agents  — 
Fungous  friends:  Red  fungus  —  Grey  fungus  —  Black  fun- 
gus —  Brown  fungus  —  Red  Aschersonia  —  Methods  of  dis- 
seminating fungi  —  Insect  friends:  Australia  ladybug 
—  Two-spotted  ladybug. 


PART  IV. 

LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

American  Citrus  Literature 555-560 

Index  to  American  pubications  on  citrus  fruits. 


PART  V. 

APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

Variety    List 563-564 

Sweet   orange   list — Mandarin   orange   list— Pomelo    list 
— Kumquat  list— Citron  list— Lemon  list— Lime  list. 


XVIII  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIGURES. 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  Leaves  of  Plants  Allied  to  Citrus 8 

2.  Citrus  Leaves 9 

3.  Flowers  of  Sweet  Lemon 12 

4.  Oil  Cells  in  the  Rind  of  Citrus  Fruits 14 

5.  Juice  Sacks  of  Citrus  Fruits 15 

6.  Trifoliate  Orange  Tree 21 

7.  Trifoliate  Orange  Flowers 23 

8.  Flowers  of  Majorca  Orange 27 

9.  Pomelo  Blossoms 45 

10.  Kumquat  Flowers 53 

11.  Flowers  of  Villaf ranca  Lemon 61 

12.  Flower  buds  of  Mexican  Lime 65 

13.  Filer  Bigarade  Orange 69 

14.  Sour  Orange  Fruit '<  0 

15.  A  Seedling  Orange  Tree  in  Florida 76 

16.  Jaffa  Oranges 84 

17.  Everbearing  Orange  Tree 85 

18.  Ruby  Oranges 91 

19.  Bahia  Navel  Orange 93 

20.  King  Mandarin  Orange  Tree 99 

21.  A  Grove  of  Dancy  Mandarins 113 

22.  The  Triumph  Pomelo  in  Fruit 118 

23.  Marsh  Pomelo 120 

24.  Pernambuco  Pomelo 123 

25.  Duncan    Pomelos 124 

26.  Walters  Pomelo  in  Fruit 126 

27.  Cross-section   of  Pink   Shaddock 127 

28.  Nagami  and  Marumi  Kumquats 129 

29.  Everbearing    Lemon 135 

30.  Lisbon    Lemon 136 

31.  Rough  Lemon  Fruit 138 

32.  View  in  a  Lemon  Grove 140 

33.  Mexican  Lime.  .  ..141 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  xix 

FIGURE  PAGE 

34.  Cross-section  of  Tahiti  Lime 144 

35.  Vertical  Section  Through  Citrus  Flower 148 

36.  Sack  Ready  for  Covering  Pollinated  Flowers 150 

37.  Citrus    Flowers — Open — Bud — Emasculated 151 

38.  Paper  Sack  Covering  Cross-pollinated  Satsuma  Flowers.  .152 

39.  Triumph  Pomelo  Fruit  in  Mosquito-net  Sack 153 

40.  Seeds  of  Pomelo,Trifoliate  Orange,  Sweet  Orange, 

Rough  Lemon  and   Sour  Orange 169 

41.  Seedling  Pomelos  Raised  in  a  Flat 171 

42.  Germination  of  Pomelo  Seed 172 

43.  Genoa  Lemon  Cutting 175 

44.  Different  Kinds  of  Budwood 176 

45.  Mr.  Taber's  Budwood  Bins 178 

46.  Budding  Knives 182 

47.  Grafting-iron   182 

48.  Methods  of  Budding  Old  Trees 190 

49.  Cleft -grafting 192 

50.  Whip-grafting    194 

51.  Crown-grafting 194 

52.  Side-grafting   195 

53.  Inarching  195 

54.  Three  Sprouts   Inarched 196 

55.  Triangular  System  of  Planting 236 

56.  Square  System  of  Planting 236 

57.  Hexagonal  System  of  Planting 238 

58.  Quincunx  System  of  Planting 238 

59.  Double  Planting — Citrus  Fruits  and  Pineapples 240 

60.  Float  for  Smoothing  Ground 242 

61.  Branching  of  Citrus  Roots  in  the  Soil  after  Trimming.  .254 

62.  Pruning  and  Root-trimming  of  Citrus  Trees 255 

63.  The  Right  Way  to  Plant  a  Tree 256 

64.  Planting    Board 257 

65.  Pruning  and  Root-trimming  of  Citrus  Tree 258 

66.  Zinc    Label 262 

67.  Velvet  Bean  Pods  and  Nitrogen  Nodules 288 

68.  Seed  Stem  and  Flowering  Stem  of  Beggarweed 292 

69.  Nodules  on  Beggarweed  Roots 294 

70.  Map  of  Florida  Showing  Lake  Regions  and  Artesian- 

Well  Area..  .  .318 


XX  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

FIGURE  PAGE 

71.  Elevations  and  Depressions  in  Florida,  Between 

Tampa  and  Titusville 323 

72.  Diagram  Showing  How  Artesian  Wells  are  Formed 324 

73.  Spraying  Stands  Used  in  Florida 327 

74.  Artesian  Well  at  Sanford,  Florida 331 

75.  Bolton   Alarm    Thermometer 339 

76.  Effects  of  a  Slight  Frost  on  Growing  Orange  Tree 341 

77.  Oranges  Dropped  by  the  Effects  of  Cold 343 

78.  Citrus  Trees  Banked  to  Protect  the  Trunks  from  Frost.  .349 

79.  Wood  in  Place  Ready  for  Firing — North  Florida 353 

80.  Orange  Trees  on  the  Kinney  Place  at  Pierson,  Fla 354 

81.  Firing  a  California  Grove,  Using  Crude  Petroleum. 

in  Froude's  Oil  Pots 359 

82.  The  Correct  Way  to  Hold  the  Shears  in  Pruning 375 

83.  Pruning  Tools 381 

84.  Pot-grown   Marumi   Kumquat 395 

85.  Field-box  for  Handling  Fruit 407 

86.  Wickerwork  Picking  Basket 408 

87.  Ladders  for  Picking  Fruit 409 

88.  Cross-section  of  a  Well  Cured  Pomelo 414 

89.  A  Package  of  Italian  Lemons 418 

90.  The  Huntley  Sizer 423 

91.  Kumquats  Packed  in  Quart  Baskets 433 

92.  Making  Crates 438 

93.  Table  and  Frame  for  Making  Citrus  Boxes 440 

94.  Packing   Table 442 

95.  Header  or  Press  used  by  P.  J.  Bayley,  Largo,  Fla 448 

96.  Press  used  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart 449 

97.  Packing-house  of  P.  J.  Bayley 453 

98.  Foot-rot  on  Crown  Roots  and  Trunk  of  Sweet  Orange.  .467 

99.  Scab  on  Young  Fruit  and  Leaves  of  Satsuma 471 

100.  Spores  and  Spore-bearing  Parts  of  Scab  Fungus 472 

101.  Spores  and  Spore-bearing  Parts  of  Leaf-spot  Fungus. ..  .474 

102.  Leaf-spot  Fungus  on  Pomelo  Leaves 475 

103.  Spores  of  Ripe-rot  Fungus 476 

104.  Sooty-mold   478 

105.  Lichens  on  Trunk  of  an  Orange  Tree 484 

106.  Lichen  on  Leaf  of  Kumquat 485 

107.  Tree    Scraper 486 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  XXI 

FIGURE  PAGE 

108.  Orange  Tree  Showing  Effect  of  Die-back 486 

109.  Die-back  on  Orange  Twigs 489 

110.  Grasshopper  Feeding  on  Orange  Leaves 494 

111.  Purple  Scale  on  Orange 500 

112.  Long  Scale   on  Orange  Branch 501 

113.  Florida  Red    Scale 502 

114.  The  Orange  Snow  Scale 504 

115.  The  Hemispherical  Scale 506 

116.  Adult  Females  of  the  Cottony-cushion  Scale 510 

117.  Mealy-bug    513 

118.  White  Fly 515 

119.  Red  Fungus  of  Scale  Insects 546 

120.  Spores  and  Spore-cases  of  Gray  Fungus 547 

121.  Spores   of   Red   Aschersonia 548 

122.  Fungous  Enemies  of  White  Fly 549 

123.  Ladybug  Pupae  on  Orange  Twig 551 

124.  Parasitized  Plant  Lice 552 

PLATES. 
PLATE  PAGE 

1.  Picking  Scene  in  a  Well-managed  Orange  Grove 2 

2.  Flowers  of  Satsuma,  a  Mandarin  Orange 36 

3.  C.  Trifoliata,  Fruit,  Leaves  and  Thorns 64 

4.  Pineapple  Oranges  as  They  Hang  From  the  Trees 72 

5.  Dancy  Mandarin   Orange 102 

6.  King  Mandarin  Orange 105 

7.  Oneco  Mandarin  Orange 109 

8.  Satsuma   Mandarin   Orange Ill 

9.  A  Cluster  of  Hall  Pomelos 114 

10.  Citron— A  Florida  Seedling 132 

11.  Eureka  and  Genoa  Lemons 134 

12.  Pollinating    Outfit 147 

13.  Budding  Citrus  Trees 186 

14.  Budding  Citrus  Trees — continued 187 

15.  Seedling  Citrus  Trees,  Stocks 206 

16.  Wind-breaks 230 

17.  Poor  and  Good  Spring  Cultivation  on  High  Ground 272 

18.  Beggarweed  as  a  Cover  Crop  in  a  North  Florida 

Citrus  Grove . .  284 


XXII  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PLATE  PAGE 

19.  A  Well-tilled  Grove  of  Seedling  Oranges 306 

20.  (a)   Wind-mill,  Pump  and  Tank  in  a  Citrus  Grove 325 

(&)   A  Temporary  Steam  Pumping  Plant  on  a  Lake- 
shore  in  Florida 325 

21.  (a)   Irrigating  by  Means  of  Furrows 330 

(&)   Basin  Irrigation  of  Citrus  Trees 330 

(c)   Zigzag  Irrigation  of  Citrus  Trees 330 

22.  Protection  by  Tents 362 

23.  Shed  Erected  by  G.  L.  Taber,  Glen  St.  Mary,  Fla 365 

24.  Baronio  System  of  Lemon  Pruning 384 

25.  Pot-grown  Orange  Tree  in  Flower  and  Fruit 392 

26.  Picking  Parson  Brown  Oranges  in  the  Grove  of  Mr. 

A.  Trost,  Palermo,  Gal 400 

27.  Cross-sections  of  Cured  and  Uncured  Lemons 416 

28.  (a)   The  Ayer   Sizer   in   Operation 426 

(ft) A  Pneumatic  Sizer  Made  by  Maull  and  Jones 426 

29.  (a)   A  Well-packed  Box  of  Sweet  Oranges 443 

(&)    Shelf  Paper  Used  in  Packing  Oranges 443 

30.  A  Well-packed  Half-strap  of  136  Dancy  Mandarin 

Oranges 445 

31.  Packing-house  of  W.  S.  Hart 455 

32.  Interior  View  of  Manatee  Lemon  Company's  Pack- 

ing-house     460 

33.  Orange  Dog  (Papilio  Cresphontes,  Cramer) 496 

34.  Spraying  Orange  Trees  in  a  California  Grove  with 

a  Steam   Sprayer 532 

35.  Fumigating    Citrus    Trees    in    California,    Showing 

Bell   Tent   in   Position   and   Pole   Used   in   Mov- 
ing  it 542 


PART  I. 


BOTANY— HISTORY- VARITIES. 


*A :  If 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION. 


COMMERCIAL  STATUS  OF  CITRUS  CULTURE. 

From  their  home  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  where  all 
our  cultivated  forms  of  citrus  probably  had  their  origin, 
they  have  spread  throughout  the  world  and  are  now  grown 
in  groves  or  orchards  wherever  soil  and  climatic  condi- 
tions have  been  found  suitable.  Introduced  into  the  Ameri- 
can continent  at  an  early  date,  they  found  in  Brazil  and 
other  parts  of  South  America,  in  the  West  Indies,  in  Flor- 
ida and  in  California,  a  congenial  home  where  they  have 
maintained  their  foothold  to  the  present  day. 

For  many  years,  however,  they  were  grown  only  in  a 
small  way.  The  means  of  transportation  were  so  inade- 
quate and  the  methods  of  handling  the  product  so  crude, 
that  but  little  of  the  fruit  found  its  way  outside  of  the 
immediate  regions  in  which  it  was  produced. 

The  oranges  and  lemons  used  in  America  in  those  days 
were, mostly  imported  from  abroad.  They  came  largely 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  even  up  to  within  very  recent 
years  nearly  all  our  lemons  were  procured  from  Italy. 
Large  importations  are  still  made,  but  they  have  by  no 
means  kept  pace  with  the  increase  in  population.  Citrus 
fruit  culture  has  been  gradually  extending  in  America 
until  at  the  present  time  the  greater  portion  of  these  fruits 
consumed  in  this  country  is  home  grown. 

The  development  of  the  lemon  industry  in  California 
has  been  quite  phenomenal  and  the  place  secured  in  the 
markets  by  the  Florida  pomelo,  a  comparatively  new  fruit 
commercially,  is  equally  noteworthy.  The  successful  pro- 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


duction,  from  a  commercial  standpoint,  of  these  two  fruits 
is  among  the  most  important  of  recent  American  horticul- 
tural achievements. 

The  following  statistics  may  be  interesting,  as  show- 
ing the  past  and  present  status  of  the  citrus  industry : 


OUTPUT    OF    FLORIDA    CITRUS    FRUITS. 


YEAR 


BOXES 


1884-85  .  .' 600,000 

1885-86 900,000 

1886-87 1,260,000 

1887-88 1,450,000 

1888-89 1,950,000 

1889-90 2,150,000 

1890-91 .  .' 2,450,000 

1891-92 3,261,843 

1892-93 3,400,000 

1893-94 5,055,367 

1894-95 6,000,000 

1895-96 75,000 

1896-97 150,000 

1897-98 216,000 

1898-99 .' 225,000 

1899-1900 400,000 

1900-01 750,000 

1901-02 1,000,984 

OUTPUT    OF  CALIFORNIA   CITRUS   FRUITS. 


YEAR 

ORANGES 

LEMONS 

TOTAL 

Cars 

Boxes 

Cars 

Boxes 

Cars 

Boxes 

1891-2.. 
1892-3 

4,016 
4,400 
5,871 
5,022 
7,575 
7,350 
15,153 
10,351 
17,809 
24,100 

1,349,376 
1,478,400 
1,972,656 
1,687,392 
2,545,200 
2,469,000 
5,427,086 
3,701,912 
6,374,508 
8,579,200 

1893-4.. 
1894-5 

1895-6  . 

1896-7.. 

1897-8.. 
1898-9.. 
1899-0.. 
1900-1.. 

13,987 
9,448 
16,362 
21,200 

5,063,294 
3,420,176 
5,923,044 
7,674,400 

1,166 
903 
1,447 
2,900 

363,792 
281,736 
451,464 
904,800 

COMMERCIAL  STATUS   OF  CITRUS   CULTURE.  5 

From  these  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  fruit 
shipped  out  of  Florida  and  California  alone  amounted  to 
10,234,000  boxes  for  the  season  of  1900-1901.  The  greater 
quantity  of  the  output  came  from  California,  as  in  that 
year  the  Florida  crop  was  very  greatly  reduced.  Since 
that  time  the  output  has  increased  considerably. 

As  the  industry  has  added  years  to  its  life,  it  has 
reached  a  higher  stage  of  development  along  all  lines. 
The  methods  of  combating  insects  and  fungous  diseases, 
of  tillage,  of  fertilizing,  of  irrigating,  of  frost  protection, 
of  handling  and  marketing  the  crops,  are  far  in  advance  of 
what  they  were  even  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago.  Much  still 
remains  to  be  learned  and  never,  so  long  as  the  fruit  is 
produced,  will  the  last  chapter  be  read,  the  book  closed. 
But  the  fact  remains  that  the  grower  of  citrus  fruits  has 
now  more  useful  knowledge  at  his  disposal  than  ever  be- 
fore, and  the  chances  for  his  success  are  better.  New  prob- 
lems have  arisen,  but  these  have  been  solved  in  such  a  way 
as  to  lead  the  student  of  the  situation  to  believe  that  any 
emergency  which  may  arise  will  be  met  and  dealt  with 
successfully. 

In  growing  citrus  fruits  as  in  any  other  industry  inj 
which  a  man  may  engage,  the  individual  himself  is  the 
most  potent  factor  in  the  success  of  the  enterprise;  the 
personal  factor,  the  most  important  element  in  making  the, 
difference  between  profit  and  loss.  The  successful  grower 
must  bring  to  his  work  a  thorough  knowledge  of  every 
phase  of  the  industry,  backed  by  a  fixed  determination  to 
succeed  in  spite  of  all  difficulties. 

Even  with  the  enormous  output  of  citrus  fruits  there 
appears  to  be  but  little  or  no  depreciation  in  the  value  of 
the  product.  Constantly  the  cry  of  "over-supply"  is 


6  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

dinned  into  our  ears,  but  that  time  has  not  yet  arrived 
and  appears  still  to  be  in  the  far  distant  future. 

Not  all  our  American  markets  have  yet  been  supplied 
and  into  many  of  them  the  pomelo,  for  instance,  has  not 
yet  penetrated.  The  great  northwestern  portion  of  the 
continent,  across  the  Canadian  line,  is  being  populated 
rapidly  and  there  will  be  new  markets  for  many  days  to 
come,  both  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

The  people  of  the  American  continent  are  a  fruit  con- 
suming people,  and  have  the  means  at  their  disposal  for 
satisfying  their  tastes. 

On  the  whole,  the  growing  of  citrus  fruits  offers  as 
good  inducements  for  honest  effort  as  any  branch  of  hor- 
ticultural work  in  which  a  man  may  engage. 


CHAPTER  II. 
CITRUS  RELATIONSHIPS. 

The  family  Rutaceae,  to  which  the  citrus  fruits  belong, 
is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  the  prickly  ash 
(Xanthoxyluin),  hop-tree  (Ptelea),  torch-wood  (Amyris). 
and  a  few  other  plants.  Though  comparatively  few  mem- 
bers of  the  family  are  found  in  the  temperate  and  sub- 
tropical regions  of  North  America,  this  does  not  mean 
that  there  are  not  many  others  in  different  parts  of  the 
world. 

The  representatives  of  the  family  are  mostly  tropical 
in  their  distribution,  being  found  in  tropical  Africa,  south- 
eastern Asia  and  Australia,  numbering  in  all  upwards  of 
nine  hundred  species.  Hooker  in  his  Flora  of  India,  1875. 
gives  twenty-three  genera,  with  at  least  seventy-eight 
species  native  of  that  country. 

Some  writers  have  referred  to  some  of  the  citrus  fruits 
as  being  native  in  Florida,  and  the  fact  that  lemons,  limes 
and  oranges  have  become  thoroughly  naturalized  and  now 
grow  side  by  side  with  native  trees  in  the  hammocks  or 
forests,  lends  color  to  the  belief  that  they  are  indigenous. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  know  that  they  are  of  Spanish 
introduction,  and  no  citrus  trees  were  growing  in  the 
peninsula  before  the  advent  of  Europeans.  This  is  a.  mat- 
ter of  history.  No  species  of  citrus  is  native  of  America, 
and  neither  are  any  members  of  closely  related  genera 
indigenous  on  the  American  continent. 

In  classifying  the  genera  of  the  family  Rutacese,  some 
authors  have  placed  the  citrus  between  Atlantia  and  Fe~ 
ronia,  but  the  more  recent  classifications  place  citrus  as 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


Fig.  1.  Leaves  of  plants  allied 
to  Citrus.  A,  Murraya  exotica. 
B,  Tripbrasia  aurantiola.  C,  Fe- 
ronia  elephantum  D,  AEgle  inar- 
melos.  Two-fifths  natural  size. 


the  highest  type  of  plant  in  the 
whole  family.  While  there  may  be 
good  grounds  for  the  former  ar- 
rangement, the  latter  appears  to  be 
better. 

The  leaves  of  some  of  the  related 
genera  are  shown  in  Figure  1.  A. 
is  that  of  Murraya  exotica  Linn., 
a  native  Indian  plant,  the  leaves  of 
which  are  compound  with  a  var- 
iable number  of  leaflets.  B.  shows 
the  leaf  of  Triphasia  aurantiola 
Lour.,  a  plant  commonly  grown  in 
the  gardens  of  India  and  other 
parts  of  the  East  and  planted  to 
some  extent  as  an  ornamental 
shrub  in  South  Florida.  The 
leaves  are  trifoliate,  accompanied 
at  each  node  by  two  sharp, 
straight,  slender  spines.  C.  is  an 
illustration  of  the  leaves  of  Fero- 
nia  elephantum  Correa.  they  are 
quite  peculiar.  The  petioles  and 
midribs  are  winged  and  in  gene- 
ral the  three-parted  ones  bear  a 
striking  resemblance  to  those  of 
Citrus  trifoliata,  while  those  with 
a  greater  number  of  leaflets  re- 
semble a  number  of  C.  trifoliata 
leaves  joined  together.  The  leaves 
are  deciduous  and  the  tree  is  a 
native  of  India,  where  it  is  also 
cultivated  to  some  extent.  In  D. 


CITRUS  RELATIONSHIPS. 


we  have  a  representation  of  the  leaves 
of  JEgle  Marmelos  Correa.,  another 
native  Indian  tree.  The  leaves  are 
deciduous,  trifoliate  and  accompanied 
by  spines. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  all 
citrus  are  descended  from  an  original 
form  having  a  three-parted  leaf.  Bon- 
avia,  however,  takes  the  opposite 
view,  and  thinks  that  they  originated 
from  a  simple  leaved  form,  because  in 
young  plants  the  first  leaves  produced 
are  simple  and  not  articulated.  In  the 
trifoliate  orange  the  first  leaves  are 
mere  bracts  and  not  leaves.  The  au- 
thor inclines  to  the  former  view,  that 
our  citrus  fruits  originated  from  a  pri- 
mal, three-leaved  form,  and  certain  it 
is,  that  Citrus  trifoliata  L.,  as  culti- 
vated in  America  to-day,  is  closer  to 
the  wild  type  than  any  other  species 
or  variety  known  to  citrus  cultur- 
ists.  Occasionally,  on  this  plant, 
unifoliate  leaves  have  been  noted.  One 
of  these  is  indistinctly  shown  in  the 
upper  right  hand  side  of  Figure  7.  On 
the  other  hand,  trifoliate  leaves  are 
sometimes  found  on  other  citrus,  and 
the  flanges  or  wings  on  the  side  of  the 
petiole  of  the  sour  orange,  pomelo  and 
other  citrus  fruits  are,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, the  remnant  of  the  lateral  leaflets, 
now  greatly  reduced  in  size  and  ses- 


Fig.  2.  Citrus  leaves.  A, 
Trifoliate  orange.  B,  Sour 
(Freak).  C,  Pomelo.  D, 
Sweet  orange.  E,  Lemon. 
Two-fifths  natural  size. 


10  CITRUS  FRUIT 8  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

sile.  Figure  2.  shows  some  of  the  different  forms  of  citrus 
leaves.  A.  represents  the  leaf  of  Citrus  trifoliata.  B.  is 
from  a  sketch  of  a  sour  orange  leaf  in  which  the  wings 
were  enormously  developed  and  leaflet-like,  in  fact,  they 
could  well  be  regarded  as  leaflets.  C.  is  the  leaf  of  the  pom- 
elo, with  large  wings  on  the  petiole.  On  the  shaddock  they 
are  frequently  much  larger  than  on  the  leaves  of  the  pom- 
elo. D.  represents  the  sweet  orange  leaf,  with  smaller 
wings,  and  E.  the  lemon,  the  petiole  of  which  is  always 
wingless,  so  far  as  I  have  ever  observed.  The  citrus  with 
wingless  petioles  are  regarded  as  being  farthest  removed 
from  the  ancestral  type, 


CHAPTER    III. 

BOTANY  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS. 

No  more  difficult  problem  confronts  the  systematic 
pomologist  than  the  classification  of  our  citrus  fruits. 
This  difficulty  lies,  not  alone  in  the  peculiarities  of  the 
plants  themselves,  and  they  are  surely  perplexing  enough, 
but  it  has  been  greatly'  increased  by  the  innumerable 
attempts  which  have  been  made  since  the  days  of  Ferrari, 
and  before,  to  group  the  various  species  and  varieties 
of  citrus  in  some  sort  of  orderly  arrangement.  In  truth 
it  may  be  said  that  many  of  these  attempts,  instead  of 
elucidating  the  problems  connected  with  the  subject,  have 
simply  made,  or  tended  to  make,  them  more  complicated. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  whole  trouble  appears  to  lie  the 
disposition,  on  the  part  of  many  writers  on  citrus  subjects, 
to  take  the  plants  not  as  they  find  them  growing  at  the 
present  day,  but  as  they  imagine  or  suppose  they  must 
have  been  several  hundreds  or  thousands  of  years  ago. 

No  one  acquainted  with  these  fruits  doubts  for  a 
moment  but  that  in  ages  gone  by,  or  perhaps  even  in  more 
recent  years,  though  not  within  historical  times,  two  or 
more  of  our  present  distinct  forms  were  represented  by 
a  single  one.  But  what  advantage  is  there,  for  instance, 
in  throwing  the  sour  orange,  sweet  orange,  pomelo,  kum- 
quat  and  a  few  other  distinctly  different  trees  into  one 
conglomerate  species,  stretching  an  imaginative  descrip- 
tion over  the  whole  bunch  and  then  placing  each  of  the 
afore-mentioned  plants  under  this  species  as  sub-species 
and  varieties,  as  was  done  by  Dr.  A.  Engler,  in  Engler 


12  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

and  PrantPs  Pflanzenf amilien  ?    Nothing  is  to  be  gained 
by  such  a  disposition  of  the  different  forms. 

In  regard  to  the  citrus  fruits  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  in  most  cases  the  original  wild  forms  have 
disappeared,  or  at  least  have  never  been  discovered,  but 
aside  from  the  bearing  which  this  may  have  on  the  question, 
there  would  be  just  as  much  sense,  for  instance,  in  plac- 


Fig".   3.     Flowers  of  Sweet  Lemon. 
Reduced  one-fourth. 

ing  all  the  different  recognized  species  of  apples  or  plums 
in  one  or  two  species  and  then  splitting  them  up  into 
sub-species  and  varieties.  No  one  would  think  of  doing 
so. 

Hence,   following  the   course  that   is   commonly  fol- 
lowed in   regard  to   other  fruits,   the  writer  prefers  to 
designate  each  of  the  different  forms  of  citrus  as  a  specie 
They  are  sufficiently  distinct  to  be  readily  separated. 

Most  members  of  the  genus   citrus  have  had  their 


BOTANY  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS.  13 

origin  in  southeastern  Asia,  though  two  are  native  of  Aus- 
tralia. From  their  native  regions  they  have  been  carried 
into  all  countries  where  the  climate  is  suited  to  their 
growth  and  into  many  others  where  artificial  heat  is 
necessary  for  their  welfare. 

Considerable  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in 
straightening  out  the  botanical  nomenclature  of  the  species 
and  something  still  remains  to  be  desired.  For  instance, 
in  1813  (Ann.  Mus.  Par.)  Risso  described  a  species  of 
citrus,  C.  Limetta,  which  included  the  sweet  limes,  Adam's 
apple,  and  a  few  others,  but  was  not  apparently  intended 
to  include  our  acid  limes.  Under  C.  Limonum,  he  in- 
cluded the  sweet  lemons  and  acid  lemons  and  limes.  In 
1832,  Roxburgh  (Flor.  Ind.)  proposed  the  species  C. 
Acida  to  comprehend,  as  he  said,  "the  sour  lemons  or 
limes  found  in  India,7'  but  under  it  he  describes  (page 
392,  vol.  3.)  one  variety  of  sweet  lime.  His  species  may 
be  considered  identical  with  Risso's  C.  Limonum.  Hooker 
in  his  Flora  of  British  India,  1875,  described  the  acid 
limes,  under  the  name  C.  Medica,  Var.  Acida.  In  the  fol- 
lowing classification,  however,  C.  Limetta  is  applied  to  the 
acid  limes,  which  may  be  somewhat  stretching  the  original 
intent  and  purpose  of  Risso,  while  C.  Limouum  includes 
only  the  acid  lemons. 

Risso  referred  to  the  oil  cells  in  the  rind  of  citrus 
fruits  as  being  either  concave  or  convex.  Just  what  he 
meant  by  this  is  not  clear.  It  may  be  he  referred  to  their 
actual  shape,  or  on  the  other  hand  it  may  be  he  had  in 
mind  the  form  of  the  ends  of  the  cells,  where  they  touch 
the  outer  plane  of  the  rind. 

But  in  either  case  the  concavity  or  convexity  of  the 
oil  cells  as  a  basis  of  separation  of  the  different  species 
and  varieties  appears  to  be  worthless.  Both  kinds  have  fre- 


J4  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

^^^^          quently    been    noted    in    the    same 

* species.     Fig.  4  D.  shows  the  usual 

•  shape  of  the  oil  cells  in  the  rind 

ofLnQn\/£ktoOQiifiQ-  of  the  mandarin  oranges.  The  il- 
lustration represents  those  of  the 
China  mandarin.  Yet  in  the  rind 
of  Beauty,  a  variety  of  mandarin 
closely  related  to  China  and  truly 
a  member  of  the  group,  the  oil  cells 
are  distinctly  oval  or  double  con- 
vex. They  are  scattered  through 
the  white  fungous  portion  of  the 
rind  and  may  be  readily  dissected 
out. 

It  is  believed  that  the  juice 
sacks  of  the  pulp,  their  size,  shape 
and  appearance  in  the  cut  surface 

rig.  4.   oil  ceiis  in  the  Rind  of  tlle  f™t  can  be  used  to  some 
of  citrus  Fruits.   A,  Trifo-  extent  as   a   diagnostic   feature   in 

liate   orange.     B,    Sweet  or- 
ange,   c,  sour  orange.    D,    classification,  a  point  which  seems 

Mandarin    orange.      E,     Po- 

melo-     F^  Kutnquat-    KG-  to  have  been  quite  general Iv  over- 
Lemon.     The    distance    be- 
tween the  line  on  which  the  looked.     The  juice  sacks  of  a  num- 

cells  rest,  and  the  next  line 

above    represent    the    thick-     foer     of     fl^     gpeciCS     are     ShOWU     in 

ness   of   the   rind.     Enlarged 

IV,    times.  Fig.    5. 

Family.  Rutaceae,  Juss.  Gen.,  296,  1789.  Trees  or  shrubs, 
rarely  herbs,  with  aromatic  alternate  or  opposite,  usually  com- 
pound leaves,  dotted  with  translucent  glands  containing  an 
essential  oil.  Flowers  generally  in  axillary  or  terminal  cymes, 
though  sometimes  occurring  singly.  Sepals  four  to  five  or 
lacking.  Petals  four  to  five,  hypogynous  or  perigynous.  Sta- 
mens as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  the  petals  (in  Citrus  and 
^Egle  more),  separate  or  united,  inserted  on  the  receptacle; 
anthers  two-celled,  opening  along  the  inner  face,  generally  ver- 


BOTANY  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS. 


15 


satile.     Pistils  two  or  five,  or  one  and  com- 
pound with  two  to  five  or  more  carpels,  in- 
serted on  the  more  or  less  elongated  recep- 
tacle.     Fruit    a    capsule,    berry,    drupe    or 
samara.      Seeds    oblong    or    kidney-shaped; 
embryo     straight     or     curved;      endosperm 
fleshy,       sometimes       lacking;       cotyledons 
fleshy  or  foliaceous.     Plants  mostly  native 
of  tropical   countries. 

Genus.  Citrus  Linn.,  Gen.  Plant.,  Ed. 
5,  341,  1754.  Shrubs  or  trees,  usually  with 
spiny  branches.  Leaves  persistent,  unifoli- 
ate  (trifoliate  and  deciduous  in  C.  trifoliata 
L.),  thick  and  leathery,  dotted  with  trans- 
lucent oil  glands;  petioles  generally  more 
or  less  winged.  Flowers  axillary,  solitary, 
clustered  or  in  small  cymes,  white  or  pur- 
plish pink,  scented;  calyx  small,  cup-like; 
sepals  three  to  five;  petals  four  to  six,  or 
occasionally  eight,  linear  oblong  (in  C.  tri- 
foliata almost  obovate),  thick,  imbricated; 
stamens  fifteen  to  sixty,  united  or  sepa- 
rate, inserted  round  a  cupular  or  annular 
disk;  ovary  5 — 8  celled,  style  soon 
uous;  ovules  several  in  each  cell.  Fruit  a 
berry,  globose,  sub-globose  or  oblong 
pointed;  rind  sweet  or  bitter,  well  pro- 
vided with  oil  cells; juice  contained  in  small  fusiform  sacks  or 
cells;  seeds  light  colored,  testa  coriaceous  or  membranous,  em- 
bryos frequently  two  or  more  in  each  seed;  cotyledons  fleshy; 
hypogeal  in  germination.  Most  members  of  the  genus  are  sup- 
posed to  have  had  their  origin  in  Cochin  China  and  the  Malay 
Archipelago.  Several  have  become  domesticated  in  Florida  and 
the  West  Indies. 


Fig.  5.  Juice  Sacks  of 
Citrus  Fruits.  A,  Trifo- 
decid-  liate  orange.  B,  Sweet 
orange.  C,  Sour  orange. 
D,  Mandarin  orange.  E, 
Pomelo.  F,  Kumquat. 
G,  Lemon.  Two-fifths 
natural  size. 


SPECIES    OF   CITRUS    CULTIVATED    IN    AMERICA. 

Citrus  trifoliata  L.,  Sp.  PI.  Ed.  II,  1101,  1763.  A  small  low 
branching  tree,  of  strict,  upright  habit,  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in 
height;  young  branches  angled,  older  ones  rounded,  thorny^ 


l(j  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

stiff;  thorns  alternate,  1  to  1  1-2  inches  long,  flattened  at  the 
base,  stout,  stiff,  sharp;  leaves  deciduous,  trifoliate,  leaflets  more 
or  less  elliptical,  crenate  or  dentate,  thin;  flower  buds  enclosed 
in  scales;  flowers  produced  singly  or  in  pairs,  axillary,  generally 
appearing  before  the  leaves,  but  occasionally  with  (fig.  7)  or 
after  them ;  sepals  five,  light  greenish  yellow,  small,  oval,  pointed, 
about  1-4  inch  long;  corolla  large,  white,  1  1-2  to  1  3-4  inches 
across  when  expanded;  petals  obovate,  thin,  striated,  polypetal- 
ous;  stamens  twenty-one  to  twenty-three,  filaments  separate, 
anthers  adnate,  oval  two-celled;  pistil  oblong,  club-shaped, 
hairy,  style  short;  ovary  six-loculed;  fruit  light  orange,  rough, 
covered  with  short  hair;  oil  of  the  rind  aromatic,  sticky;  pulp 
rather  sparse,  acid;  juice  sacks  slender,  pointed;  seeds  numer- 
ous, distinct  from  other  citrus,  oval,  rounded  at  the  ends,  plump, 
embryo  one;  time  of  flowering  variable,  extending  in  the  citrus 
districts  from  the  first  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April;  fruit 
ripening  in  September  and  October;  tree  very  hardy,  native  of 
China  and  Japan. 

Citrus  vulgaris  Risso,  Ann.  Mus.,  Paris,  XX:  190,  1813. 
Seville  orange,  Bigarade  orange,  Sour  orange.  A  small  tree, 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height,  with  a  dense,  compact  head; 
young  shoots  light  green,  thorny;  thorns  alternate,  small,  sharp 
pointed;  on  older  wood  larger,  strong,  stiff;  leaves  unifoliate, 
evergreen,  alternate,  ovate,  pointed,  strongly  and  peculiarly 
scented;  petiole  1-2  to  3-4  inch  long,  broadly  winged;  flowers  in 
small  axillary  cymes,  white,  strongly  sweet  scented,  somewhat 
larger  than  those  of  Citrus  aurantium;  calyx  cupped,  segments 
four  to  five,  blunt;  petals  linear  oblong,  conspicuously  dotted 
with  oil  cells;  stamens  twenty  to  twenty-four,  filaments  united 
in  groups;  pistil  club-shaped,  smooth,  ovary  six  to  fourteen  loc- 
uled;  fruit  orange  colored  or  frequently  reddish  when  well 
matured,  inclined  to  be  rough;  rind  strongly  aromatic,  bitter; 
pulp  acid,  juice  sacks  spindle-shaped,  rather  small;  seeds  flat- 
tened and  wedged  toward  the  micropylar  end,  marked  with  ridged 
lines.  Native  of  southeastern  Asia,  probably  in  Cochin  China. 
Hardier  than  the  sweet  orange.  Introduced  into  Florida  at  an 
early  date  and  now  naturalized  in  many  of  the  forests. 

Citrus  AiirflTiMn^T,  Sp.  PL  2:782,  1753.  Sweet  orange.  A 
tree  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  in  height  with  a  compact,  conical 


BOTANY  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS.  17 

head;  bark  greyish  brown;  thorns  generally  present,  1-2  to  2 
inches  long,  sharp,  stout;  leaves  oval  or  ovate  oblong,  3  to  4  inches 
long,  smooth,  shining,  somewhat  lighter  below  than  above,  mar- 
gins entire,  or  very  slightly  serrate;  petiole  ~y2  to  1  inch  long, 
slightly  winged  (occasionally  with  quite  a  broad  wing) ;  flowers 
axillary  in  clusters  of  one  to  six,  white,  sweet-scented,  smaller 
than  those  of  C.  vulgaris;  calyx  cupped;  sepals  four  to  five,  awl- 
shaped,  thick,  greenish,  persistent;  petals  usually  five,  oblong, 
1  to  1-4  inches  long,  thick,  fleshy,  recurved;  stamens  twenty  to 
twenty-five,  hypogynous,  filaments  flattened,  united  in  groups, 
shorter  than  the  petals;  pistil  distinctly  divided  into  stigma, 
style  and  ovary;  stigma  knob-like,  style  long  and  slender,  ovary 
rounded,  ten  to  fourteen  loculed;  fruit  globose  or  oblate,  light 
orange  to  reddish,  rind  smooth;  pulp  juicy,  sub-acid;  juice  sacks 
spindle-shaped,  sometimes  larger  than  those  of  C.  vulgaris;  seeds 
few  or  many,  oblong  ovoid,  plano-convex,  generally  broad,  wedged 
or  pointed  at  the  micropylar  end,  marked  with  oblique  ridges 
surrounding  one  or  two  plain  areas.  Native  of  China  or  Cochin 
China. 

Citrus   nobilis   Lour.,    Flor.    Coch.,    2:466,    1790.      The  jnan- 
darin  orange.     A  small   tree,   twelve  to  twenty  feet   in  height, 


with  a  dense  head  of  upright  or  willowy  drooping  branches; 
bark  dark  brownish  or  streaked  with  gray;  branchlets  light 
green  or  dark  in  color,  small,  slender,  round  or  angled,  thorn- 
less  or  provided  with  small  sharp  spines;  leaves  small,  lanceo- 
late to  oval,  slightly  crenate;  petioles  short,  wingless  or  with 
very  small  wings;  flowers  terminating  the  branchlets  or  axillary, 
sometimes  clustered,  3-4  to  1  inch  across,  sweet-scented;  calyx 
small,  shallow,  cupped,  the  petals  small;  petals  white,  fleshy, 
recurved;  stamens  eighteen  to  twenty-three  in  number,  shorter 
than  the  petals;  pistil  small,  resembling  that  of  0.  Aurantium; 
ovary  nine  to  fifteen  loculed;  fruit  distinctly  oblate,  orange  to 
reddish  in  color,  pulp  sweet  or  sub-acid;  juice  sacks  broad  and 
blunt;  seeds  top-shaped,  beaked,  cotyledons  pistache  green;  em- 
bryos one  or  more;  sections  separating  readily  from  each  other 
and  from  the  rind;  rind  thin,  oil  cells  somewhat  balloon-shaped 
or  oval.  Native  of  Cochin  China.  Generally  admitted  to  be 
somewhat  hardier  than  the  sweet  orange. 

Citrus  decumana  L.,  Syst.  Nat.  Ed.  12,  2:508,  1767.     Pomelo 


18  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

and  Shaddock.  A  tree  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  with  a 
rounded  or  conical  head  and  a  trunk  upwards  of  eighteen  inches 
in  diameter;  bark  smooth,  grayish  brown;  young  leaves  and 
shoots  sparsely  pubescent,  light  green;  leaves  ovate,  blunt, 
pointed  or  rounded,  emarginate,  smooth,  dark  glossy  green, 
leathery,  margin  crenate;  petioles  articulated,  broadly  winged; 
flowers  produced  singly  or  in  cymose  clusters  of  two  to  twenty, 
sweet-scented,  calyx  cupped,  large;  sepals  four  to  five,  pointed; 
corolla  white,  1  1-2  to  1  3-4  inches  across;  petals  four  to  five, 
slightly  reflexed,  fleshy,  oblong;  stamens  twenty  to  twenty-five, 
anthers  large,  abundantly  supplied  with  pollen,  proterandrous; 
pistil  stout,  stigma  when  ripe  covered  with  a  sticky,  milky  fluid; 
ovary  eleven  to  fourteen  loculed;  fruit  large,  oblate,  globose  or 
pyriform,  light  lemon  or  orange  colored;  flesh  grayish  or  pink; 
juice  sacks  large,  spindle-shaped;  flavor  a  mingling  of  acid,  bit- 
terness and  sweetness  or  sub-acid;  seeds  large,  light  colored, 
wedge-shaped  or  irregular,  ridged  with  prominent  ridges  sur 
rounding  broad,  flat  areas.  Native  of  Polynesian  and  Malayan 
Archipelagoes. 

CMtriia  .Ta.pnmV.a.  Thunb.,  Fl.  Jap.,  292,  1784.  Kumquat.  A 
shrub  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  high,  much  branched,  the  head 
rather  close  and  compact;  branches  when  young,  light  green, 
somewhat  angled,  becoming  rounder  with  age,  thornless  or  with 
small,  sharp  thorns,  1-2  inch  long;  leaves  3-8  x  1  1-4  inches  to 
15-8x3  3-8  inches,  lanceolate;  apex  obtuse;  base  acute  or  obtuse, 
margin  very  slightly  crenate  down  about  half  way  from'  the 
apex,  upper  surface  dark  green,  glossy,  lower  lighter;  flowers 
pure  white,  axillary,  single  or  in  pairs,  occasionally  in  clusters 
of  as  many  as  four  borne  on  new  or  on  one-year-old  wood;  pe- 
duncle bracted  with  one  or  two  minute  bracts;  calyx  small,  green- 
ish; corolla  5-8  inch  across  when  expanded;  petals  four  to  five, 
oblong,  lanceolate,  fleshy;  stamens  unequal,  short,  united  in  a 
ring  or  in  two  or  three  groups,  fifteen  to  twenty-two  in  number; 
pistil  small,  the  ovary  five  to  six  loculed;  fruit  round  or  oblong, 
1  to  1 1-4  inches  in  diameter;  oil  cells  of  the  rind  large  and  con- 
spicuous, the  inner  lining  of  the  rind  sweet;  pulp  acid,  juice 
sacks  small;  seeds  few,  small,  blunt  pointed;  cotyledons  green  or 
greenish.  Presumably  a  native  of  Cochin  China. 

Citrus  Medica  L.,  Sp.  PI.,  2:782,  1753.     Citron.     A  shrub  or 


BOTANY  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS.  19 

small  tree,  about  ten  feet  high  with  a  short,  indistinct  trunk  and 
short,  thick  irregular,  straggling,  thorny  branches;  bark  light 
gray;  thorns  short,  sharp,  rather  stout;  young  shoots  smooth, 
violet  colored  or  purplish,  stiff;  leaves  large,  four  to  six  inches 
long,  oval  oblong,  serrate  or  somewhat  crenate,  dark  green  above, 
lighter  beneath;  flowers  small,  axillary  in  compact  clusters  of 
three  to  ten,  often  unisexual;  calyx  small,  cupped;  corolla  white 
within,  tinged  with  purple  on  the  outside;  petals  oblong,  the 
tips  incurved;  stamens  short,  irregular  in  length,  forty  to  forty- 
five  in  number;  pistil  small,  ovary  nine  to  twelve  loculed,  or 
occasionally  more;  fruit  lemon  yellow,  large,  6  to  9  inches  long, 
oblong,  rough  or  warty;  sometimes  ridged,  apex  blunt  pointed, 
rind  thick,  white  except  for  the  outer  colored  rim;  pulp  sparse, 
juice  scant,  acid  and  somewhat  bitter,  or  sweetish;  juice  sacks 
small,  slender,  seeds  oval,  plump,  light  colored,  smooth.  Proba- 
bly native  of  India,  or  it  may  have  been  introduced  there  from 
farther  east,  China  or  Cochin  China,  Extremely  sensitive  to 
cold. 

Citrus  Lining11™  Risso,  Ann.  Mus.  Paris,  XX:  201,  1813. 
Lemon.  A  small  tree,  ten  to  twenty  feet  in  height,  with  rather 
open  head  of  short,  round  or  angular  branches,  thorny;  bark 
grayish;  young  shoots  purplish,  smooth;  leaves  evergreen,  alter- 
nate, two  to  three  inches  in  length,  ovate-oval,  sharp  pointed, 
light  green,  margin  serrate;  petioles  entirely  wingless;  flowers 
solitary  occasionally  in  pairs,  axillary,  on  distinct  peduncles; 
calyx  persistent,  segments  four  to  five;  corolla  large,  1  1-2  to  2 
inches  across,  white  inside,  purplish  outside,  petals  oblong  spread- 
ing, strongly  reflexed;  stamens  twenty  to  twenty-six,  separate, 
or  more  or  less  united  in  small  groups;  ovary  considerably  ele- 
vated on  a  prominent  disk,  seven  to  ten  loculed;  fruit  ripening  at 
all  seasons,  ovoid  or  oblong  and  pointed  at  both  base  and  apex, 
about  3  inches  long,  smooth  or  rough,  light  yellow  in  color,  rind 
thin;  flesh  light  colored,  pulp  acid,  juice  sacks  long  and  pointed; 
seeds  oval,  pointed  at  the  micropylar  end,  quite  smooth.  Native 
of  the  same  regions  as  the  citron. 

Citrus  Limetta  Risso,  Ann.  Mus.  Paris,  XX:  195,  1813.  J^ujjfc 
a  shrub  or  small  tree  of  straggling  habit,  with  small,  stiff,  inter- 
locking or  drooping  thorny  branches,  the  thorns  small,  sharp, 
numerous;  bark  grayish  brown;  young  branchlets  light  green, 


9()  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

becoming  darker  with  age;  leaves  elliptic-oval,  glossy  green  in 
color,  margin  slightly  indented;  petioles  margined;  flowers  small, 
produced  in  axillary  clusters  of  three  to  ten;  calyx  small,  four 
to  five  pointed;  corolla  white  on  both  inner  and  outer  surfaces, 
petals  four  to  five,  oblong,  fleshy;  stamens  small,  twenty  to 
twenty-five,  united  in  a  number  of  groups;  ovary  about  ten  loc- 
uled;  fruit  rounded  oblong  or  oblong,  frequently  mammilate, 
light  yellow,  rind  thin,  pulp  greenish,  acid;  juice  sacks  small, 
slender,  pointed;  seeds  small,  oval,  pointed.  Native  of  India  and 
southeastern  Asia. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE    TRIFOLIATE    ORANGE. 

As  a  commer- 
cial variety,  the 
trifoliate  orange 
is  worthless.  It 
is,  however,  val- 
uable as  a  hedge 
plant,  and  as  a 
stock  on  which 
to  work  other 
varieties  of 
citrus.  Large 
quantities  o  f 
seed  are  annual- 
ly produced  in 
Florida  and 
Louisiana,  but 
so  great  is  the 
demand,  that  a 
great  deal  is 
imported  from 
Japan  as  well. 

Hybrids  have 
been  produced 
between  the  tri- 
foliate and 
sweet  oranges 

Fig.  6.    Trifoliate  Orange  Tree.  ^y     J)r      jj      j 

Webber  and  others,  in  the  hope  of  securing  a  palatable 
variety  more  resistant  to  the  effects  of  frost  than  the  sweet 


22  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

orange.  What  the  outcome  will  eventually  be  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say,  but  it  may  be  that  from  this  fruit  may  spring 
a  race  of  hardy  citrus  with  which  the  citrus  industry  will 
be  extended  northward  far  beyond  its  present  limits. 

What  seems  to  be  the  first  mention  of  the  trifoliate 
orange  in  citrus  literature  is  that  made  by  Kaempfer  in  his 
Amoenitatum  Exoticarum  in  1712.  An  illustration  (page 
802),  accompanying  his  brief  description,  leaves  no  room 
to  doubt  the  identity  of  his  Si,  vulgo  Karatats  ~banna 
with  the  trifoliate  orange.  In  1763  Linnaeus  described 
the  trifoliate  orange  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Species 
Plantarum  and  the  name  applied  by  him,  Citrus  trifoliata, 
is  now  the  accepted  one.  Thunberg,  in  his  Flora  Japonica, 
1784,  gave  the  name  Citrus  trifolia.  A.  P.  DeCandolle,  in 
his  Prodromus  Systematis  Naturalis,  1824,  placed  the  tri- 
foliate orange  in  the  genus  ^3£gle,  naming  it  ^Egle  separia. 
There  is  doubtless  some  reason  for  this  disposition  of  the 
plant,  for  in  many  respects  it  is  not  a  true  citrus.  Again 
in  1829,  Desfontaines  renamed  it  Citrus  triptera.  Engler, 
in  his  classification  of  citrus — Engler  and  Prantl,  Pflanz- 
enfamilien,  1896,  has  placed  Citrus  trifoliata  in  the  sec- 
tion Pseudcegle  of  the  genus  citrus,  which,  all  things  con- 
sidered, is  a  satisfactory  disposition  of  the  species. 

The  trifoliate  orange  is  said  to  have  been  first  intro- 
duced into  America  in  1869  by  the  late  Wm.  Saunders, 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

For  many  years,  it  has  been  the  hope  of  citrus  fruit 
growers  that  varieties  might  be  secured  which  would 
resist  many  degrees  of  frost.  The  production  of  hybrid 
varieties  with  this  object  in  view  was  undertaken,  in 
Florida,  in  1892-93  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Webber,  and  Mr.  Walter 
T.  Swingle  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. Most  of  the  early  results  were  lost,  but  the  work 


THE   TRIFOLIATE   ORANGE. 


was  again  taken  up  in  1896-97  and  vigorously  pushed. 
Their  work  resulted  in  the  production  of  upwards  of  two 
thousand  hybrids  and  a  number  of  these  have  proved  to 
possess  the  desired  hardiness. 

Many  of  the  varieties  have  been  fruited  for  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  by  the  Glen  Saint  Mary  Nurseries 
in  northern  Florida  and  by  different  Experiment  Stations 
in  the  Southern  States.  It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
that  the  hardy  varieties  will  stand,  uninjured,  tempera- 
tures which  would  prove  fatal 
to  ordinary  oranges.  The  work 
has  now  progressed  so  far  that 
something  definite  can  be  said 
concerning  the  quality  of  the 
fruit  and  some  estimation  can 
be  placed  on  the  work  from  the 
standpoint  of  future  and  fur- 
ther developments. 

Everything  pointed  to  Citrus 
trifoliata  as  the  parent  which 
would  impart  the  desired  hardi- 
ness. With  this  as  the  female 
parent  (in  most  cases)  the  work 
was  undertaken.  Crossing  was 
not  as  easily  performed  as 
might  be  expected.  Only  about 
two  per  cent,  of  the  fruit  set 
and  many  of  these  produced  a 
considerable  amount  of  defect- 
ive seed.  A  large  number  of  the 
plants  produced  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  trifoliate 
orange,  others  are  exactly  like 
sweet  orange  seedlings,  while 


Fisr-  7- 


24  CITRUS   FRUITS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE. 

still  others  combine  the  characters  of  both  parents. 
Many  proved  to  be  evergreen  like  the  orange  but  with 
trifoliate  leaves  like  those  of  Citrus  trifoliata.  The  pro- 
portion of  those  showing  intermediate  characters  was 
probably  less  than  twenty-five  per  cent.  For  instance, 
out  of  forty  plants,  raised  from  seed  of  a  single  fruit, 
twenty-nine  closely  resembled  the  trifoliate  orange,  the 
remaining  eleven  being  intermediate  in  character. 

The  hybrids  have  proved  to  be  vigorous  growers  and 
far  surpass,  in  size,  seedling  Citrus  trifoliata  trees  of 
the  same  age.  Those  varieties  which  have  fruited  have 
proved  to  be  prolific.  The  flowers  are  quite  different  from 
those  of  either  of  the  parents,  but  for  the  most  part  sweet 
scented  like  those  of  the  orange. 

The  fruit  varies  considerably  in  size,  that  produced 
by  some  varieties  is  but  little  larger  than  Citrus  trifo- 
liata fruit.  Others  bear  fruit  equal  in  size  to  that  of 
the  common  orange  and  one  variety  at  least  bears  fruit 
so  closely  resembling  that  of  the  sweet  orange  that  in 
appearance  it  cannot  be  readily  distinguished  from  it. 

In  quality,  the  fruits  are  not  so  good  as  the  sweet 
oranges.  They  are  intermediate  in  character  and  retain 
some  of  the  flavor  of  the  Citrus  trifoliata  fruit.  For  the 
most  part  they  are  quite  sour.  They  can  be  used  for 
making  a  very  fine  quality  of  ade  and  may  also  be  used 
for  many  culinary  purposes.  In  fact,  some  of  them  may 
be  substituted  for  lemons  as  commonly  used.  As  orna- 
mental trees  they  are  decidedly  valuable.  In  foliage, 
flower  and  fruit,  they  are  quite  ornamental  and  make 
very  handsome  lawn  specimens. 

Up  to  the  present  time  five  noteworthy  varieties  of 
citranges,  as  they  are  called,  Busk,  Morton,  Colman, 
Savage  and  Rustic,  have  been  named  and  described  by 
Dr.  Webber. 


CHAPTER  V. 
THE  BIGARADE  ORANGES. 

In  America  the  oranges  of  this  group  are  commonly 
referred  to  as  sour  oranges,  but  for  some  reasons  it  has 
been  deemed  best  not  to  adopt  this  name,  although  the 
sour  orange  is  the  most  important  variety  in  the  group. 
They  have  also  been  called  Seville  oranges,  but  this  cog- 
nomen has  also  been  given  to  some  of  the  sweet  oranges. 
It,  too,  has  been  discarded  as  a  group  name  in  favor  of 
the  French  "Bigarade." 

The  sweet  and  bigarade  oranges  have  been  placed 
under  one  species,  C.  Aurantium  L.,  by  many  writers.  One 
of  the  principal  reasons  advanced  for  so  doing  is  the 
statement  made  by  Macfayden  and  others  that  sweet  orange 
seed  frequently  produced  trees  bearing  bigarade  oranges. 

In  view  of  evidence  to  the  contrary,  there  appears  to 
be  no  reason  for  believing  that  Macfayden's  observations 
\vere  accurate.  In  Porto  Rico  orange  trees  have  been  used 
to  a  considerable  extent  for  affording  shade  in  the  coffee 
plantations.  The  plantings  are  invariably  mixed,  here 
a  sweet  orange,  there  a  bigarade.  The  planting  was  done 
indiscriminately,  no  notice  being  taken  as  to  the  kind  of 
tree  from  which  the  seed  was  procured.  Moreover  the  work 
was  done  by  ignorant  laborers  and  any  conclusions  which 
might  be  drawn  from  it  are  worthless.  In  Jamaica,  where 
Macfayden  made  his  observations,  practically  the  same  con- 
ditions prevail,  and  the  laboring  class  is  the  same.  The 
natives  were  probably  the  first  to  aver  that  sweet 
orange  seed  produced  trees  bearing  bigarade  fruit  and 
this  mvth,  like  manv  another,  found  its  wav  into  and  ob- 


26  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

tained  an  abiding  place  in  botanical  and  horticultural 
literature. 

If  the  bigarade  orange  has  remained  specifically  dis- 
tinct, even  though  the  distinctions  between  it  and  the 
sweet  orange  be  slight,  through  a  period  of  about  eight  cen- 
turies, reproducing  itself  true  to  seed  without  the  inter- 
ference of  man  throughout  that  period,  it  certainly  is 
entitled  to  specific  rank.  The  history  of  the  group  shows 
that  it  has  done  so. 

The  Spaniards  brought  the  first  bigarade  oranges  to 
America.  Fruit  was  obtained  by  the  Indians  and  they 
carried  it  about  on  their  journeys.  The  seeds  were 
dropped  where  the  fruit  was  eaten  and  finding  in  Florida 
and  other  regions  a  soil  and  climate  adapted  to  their 
growth,  grew  up  where  they  had  been  deposited.  As  a 
result,  wild  groves  were  formed  on  the  shores  of  lakes  and 
rivers.  Natural  groves,  where  four  or  five  hundred  trees 
grew  on  an  acre,  were  not  uncommon  at  one  time  in  many 
parts  of  Florida,  and  even  to  this  day,  the  sour  orange 
grows  wild  in  many  of  the  hammocks.  By  top-working 
these  natural  groves,  many  of  the  early  sweet  orange 
)ves  were  established. 

In  America  the  bigarade  oranges  are  unimportant 
ffrom  a  commercial  standpoint.  The  greatest  use  to  which 
the  sour  orange,  the  most  important  variety  of  the  group, 
^is  put  is  for  stocks  upon  which  to  work  other  citrus  fruits. 
For  the  production  of  stocks,  sour  orange  seed  is  in  con- 
siderable demand  at  a  fair  price.  Orange  marmalade  of 
the  finest  quality  may  be  manufactured  from  the  fruit, 
while  a  refreshing  drink,  "orangeade,"  may  be  made  from 
the  juice. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES. 

This  group  of  citrus 
fruits  has  been  known 
by  a  number  of  names, 
names  generally  derived 
from  the  localities  from 
which  they  were  se- 
cured. They  have  been 
referred  to  as  Portugal 
oranges,  Malta 
oranges,  etc.,  but  the 
name  used  above  is 
now  generally  accepted. 
It  can  scarcely  be  con- 
s  i  d  e  r  e  d  descriptive, 
however.  The  taste  of  a 
good  fruit  of  this  group 
is  not  sweet.  Sweetness 
should  preponderate, 
but  it  should  be  modi- 
fied by  and  blended 
with  acid.  Neverthe- 
less, usage  has  estab- 
lished the  name  and 
everywhere  it  is  and 
has  been  used  for  hun- 
dreds of  years.  These 
fruits  were  known  to 
Ferrari  as  Aurantium  vulgare  medulla  dulci  while  Volck- 
amer  in  1713  called  them  Aurantium  frucfu  child. 


Fig.  8.     Flowers  of  Majorca  Orange 
(Reduced  about  one-third.) 


28  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  researches  of  Gallesio  go  to  prove  that  the  sweet 
oranges  were  not  known  in  Europe  until  early  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  They  were,  however,  rapidly  disseminated 
after  their  introduction  and  in  a  comparatively  short  time 
cultivated  in  all  parts  of  southern  Europe,  suited  to  their 
growth.  Later  their  culture  was  still  further  extended, 
the  fruit  being  grown  in  houses,  of  which  both  Ferrari  and 
Volckainer  give  illustrations,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  they  were  grown  under  cover  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  where  their  culture  could  not  be  success- 
fully accomplished  in  the  open  air. 

The  date  of  their  introduction  into  America  is,  as 
it  is  with  nearly  all  the  early  introductions  of  citrus, 
merely  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The  Spaniards  were  un- 
doubtedly responsible  for  its  being  brought  into  many 
parts  of  the  New  World.  On  the  authority  of  Acosta 
and  Piso,  who  wrote  concerning  their  travels  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Brazil  respectively,  we  must  conclude  that 
oranges  of  some  sort  were  well  established  in  those  parts 
of  America,  which  they  visited,  prior  to  the  years  1600  and 
1648.  In  Florida  the  early  settlers  found  sweet  orange 
trees  growing  in  the  hammocks  in  some  places.  That 
whole  strain  of  oranges  now  largely  grown  on  the  Indian 
River  had  their  origin  in  one  of  these  wild  groves.  But  the 
fact  remains  that  the  sweet  orange  was  not  so  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  Florida  as  the  bigarade  orange,  at 
least,  it  was  not  found  so  abundantly  in  the  native  woods. 
This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  sweet 
orange,  being  less  hardy,  was  not  as  capable  of  making  a 
place  for  itself  among  the  native  trees  as  the  bigarade. 
It  is  not  improbable  the  sweet  orange  was  introduced  at 
a  somewhat  later  date  than  the  sour  bigarade,  which 
might  also,  in  a  measure,  account  for  its  not  being  so 


THE   SWEET  ORANGES.  29 

common.  But  groves  were  established  and  in  a  thorough 
state  of  cultivation  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and 
even  before  that  time  considerable  attention  was  given 
to  citrus  culture. 

The  introduction  of  the  orange  into  California  is  thus 
told  by  Mr.  B.  M.  Lelong: 

"In  1767  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  the  missions 
in  Lower  California,  their  possessions  were  turned  over 
to  the  Franciscans,  and  Junipero  Serra  was  selected  as 
President  of  the  Missions.  A  dispute  arose  between  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  over  the  division  of  the 
property.  The  latter  claimed  an  interest  in  the  mission 
work.  In  consequence  of  this  a  division  was  made,  and 
in  1769  the  Franciscans  started  northward,  entering  and 
occupying  what  is  now  the  State  of  California.  *  *  * 

"Jose  del  Galvez,  Visitor-general'  and  secular  head, 
with  Father  Serra,  made  arrangements  for  the  establish- 
ment of  settlements.  Twenty-one  missions  were  estab- 
lished, all  but  three  of  which  had  gardens  and  orchards. 
The  mission  orchards  were  very  small,  and  some  consisted 
of  but  few  trees,  but  those  trees  played  an  important  part 
in  the  horticultural  advancement  of  the  State,  for  they 
showed  the  possibilities  in  fruit  culture,  and  furnished 
seeds,  stocks  and  scions  for  many  orchards.  *  *  * 
The  chief  fruits  brought  by  the  Fathers  were  oranges,  figs, 
grapes  and  olives.  *  *  *"  * 

Of  all  the  citrus  fruits  cultivated  in  America  at  the   ] 
present  time,  the  sweet  orange  is  the  most  important?    Its   I 
cultivation  represents  more  capital  than  all  the  others  > 
together,  and  it  is  likely  to  maintain  its  present  position/ 
so  long  as  fruits  of  this  genus  are  grown. 

It  is  used  as  a  dessert  fruit  only  and  for  the  most 
part  all  sweet  oranges  are  consumed  without  cooking.  In 


30  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

fact,  cooking  spoils  the  sweet  orange;  it  parts  with  its 
flavor  and  becomes  insipid.  But  as  a  raw  fruit  it  is  un- 
surpassed. 

The  number  of  varieties  of  sweet  oranges  which  have 
been  brought  before  the  public  is  considerably  over  one 
hundred.  Unfortunately,  descriptions  of  them  such  as 
may  be  found  for  apples,  pears  and  other  fruits,  are  com- 
paratively few.  Again,  the  origin  of  many  of  them  is  lost 
in  obscurity,  from  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  bring 
them.  As  a  result,  many  varieties  have  received  a  number 
of  names.  Unfortunately  it  has  not  been  possible  to  se- 
cure specimens  of  all  the  varieties,  but  a  goodly  number 
have  been  obtained  and  are  described  in  the  section  on 
varieties. 

Great  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in  grouping  the 
sweet  oranges.  But  it  has  finally  been  decided  to  group 
them  as  Spanish  oranges,  Mediterranean  oranges,  Blood 
oranges  and  Navel  oranges.  This  classification  is  in  some 
respects  unsatisfactory  and  further  study  of  the  group 
may  produce  something  better.  For  the  present,  however, 
this  is  the  best  that  can  be  given. 

SPANISH    ORANGES. 

Tree  large  and  of  strong,  vigorous  growth,  well  fol- 
iaged,  the  leaves  oval,  pointed,  frequently  strongly  winged ; 
fruit  of  rather  coarse  grain,  but  of  good  quality,  large; 
ripening  for  the  most  part  in  mid-season;  seeds  large, 
wedged  and  flanged. 

Most  of  the  Spanish  oranges  have  originated  as  seed- 
lings in  America,  the  majority  of  the  varieties  having 
come  from  the  seedling  groves  of  Florida.  Generally  they 
produce  fruit  in  abundance  and  the  greater  portion  of 
the  fruit  at  present  shipped  from  Florida,  Cuba  and  Porto 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES.  31 

Rico  is  of  this  class.  In  California  they  have  not  proved 
desirable  in  most  cases.  The  name  has  been  given  because 
the  oranges  of  this  group  have  come  from  the  Spanish 
introductions  of  two  or  three  centuries  ago. 

MEDITERRANEAN    ORANGES. 

Tree  standard  or  half  dwarf,  generally  distinct  in 
habit  of  growth,  many  of  them  not  distinguishable  from 
blood  oranges;  foliage  abundant,  leaves  small,  closely  set, 
or  larger  and  resembling  those  of  the  Spanish  oranges; 
fruit  heavy,  rich,  vinous,  of  excellent  quality,  fine  grained, 
round  oblate  or  somewhat  oval,  ripening  in  mid-season 
or  later;  seeds  oval,  plump,  pointed. 

The  fruit  of  this  group  is  of  the  same  general  nature 
as  the  blood  oranges,  lacking  the  blood  color.  The  size 
is  larger  and  many  of  them  are  more  prolific,  though  in 
these  respects  many  are  similar  to  the  bloods. 

Most  varieties  of  this  group  have  been  introduced 
from  the  Mediterranean  region.  Some  have  come  from 
the  Azores  and  some  from  Palestine.  Some  have  origi- 
nated in  Florida  and  other  parts  of  America. 

They  are  here  called  the  Mediterranean  oranges  be- 
cause they  have  come  either  directly  or  indirectly  from 
the  citrus  districts  of  southern  Europe.  Some  have  been 
imported  direct,  some  have  come  by  way  of  the  Azores. 
It  is  probable  that  it  would  be  more  satisfactory  to  sub- 
divide this  group,  as  there  are  some  divergences  from  the 
main  type,  of  which  Jaffa  and  Majorca  may  be  said  to 
be  representative. 

BLOOD.  ORANGES. 

Tree  dwarfish,  compact,  distinct  in  habit  of  growth; 
foliage  abundant,  the  leaves  small,  oval,  rounded,  gener- 
ally almost  without  wings ;  fruit  when  fully  matured  hav- 


32  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

ing  ruby-red  pulp  or  pulp  streaked  with  red,  of  superior 
quality,  edible  earlier  in  the  season,  but  not  showing  blood 
markings  until  late,  generally  small  or  medium-sized; 
rind  assuming  a  reddish  blush  at  maturity.  The  fruit  of 
trees  worked  on  trifoliate  orange  stock  show  blood  mark- 
ings earlier  in  the  season  than  when  other  stocks  are  used. 

This  sub-group  contains  the  best  oranges  known,  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  being  equalled  by  few  other  varieties 
and  certainly  surpassed  by  none.  Seeds  are  generally 
quite  few  in  number,  small  and  plump.  The  small  size  of 
the  fruit  of  some  varieties  is  objectionable.  The  genera] 
characteristics  of  the  group,  except  for  the  differences  in 
the  fruit  are  almost  the  same  as  those  of  the  Mediterran- 
ean oranges.  Most  of  the  varieties  now  grown  in  America 
came  originally  from  the  Mediterranean  citrus  districts, 
the  late  General  Sanford  and  Mr.  Charles  Armory  being 
responsible  for  their  introduction. 

Gallesio,  in  his  "Traite  du  Citrus,"  Paris,  1811,  men- 
tions the  blood  orange  as  one  of  the  varieties  cultivated 
extensively  in  his  day  in  Malta  and  Provence  and  by 
amateurs  and  seedsmen  in  Liguria. 

NAVEL    ORANGES. 

Tree  rather  dwarf,  with  well  rounded  top  and  glossy 
green  foliage,  generally  almost  thornless;  flowers  entirely 
lacking  in  pollen  or  only  poorly  supplied,  pistils  prolif- 
erous, giving  rise  to  an  umbilical  mark  of  greater  or  less 
extent  on  the  apex  of  the  fruit ;  fruit  of  superior  quality, 
but  perhaps  not  quite  equal  to  the  best  of  the  Mediter 
ranean  and  blood  types.  A  few  varieties  not  included 
with  those  of  the  navel  type  are  sometimes  navel  marked. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Ruby,  Boone,  St.  Michael 
Blood  and  the  Cleopatra  mandarin. 


THE   SWEET  ORANGES.  33 

Iii  Florida  the  navel  oranges  have  not  been  a  success, 
owing  to  the  small  crops  usually  produced.     The  late  E. 
H.  Hart,*  however,  called  attention  to  one  variety,  a  cross 
between  Sustain  and  Botelha  which  is  quite  prolific  in 
the  above  mentioned  district.    This  tendency  toward  shy 
bearing  can  in  part  be  overcome  in  Florida  by  a  judicious 
selection    of    stocks.      The    Bahia    navel    orange    is    the  \ 
variety  par  excellence  of  the  California  districts  and  there     \ 
seems  at  present  to  be  no  good  reason  why  any  other  va-     I 
riety  of  its  season  should  be  planted.     All  things  consid-   / 
ered,  this  variety  is  the  most  noteworthy  of  the  whole/ 
group  of  navel  oranges.  / 

More  recently  a  variety  of  navel  orange  known  as 
Surprise  has  been  brought  forward  by  Mr.  E.  S.  Hub- 
bard,  of  Federal  Point,  Fla.  This  variety  fruits  well  on 
sour  orange  stock  and  bids  fair  to  take  the  place  in  Flor- 
ida, which  the  Bahia  now  occupies  in  California. 

Regarding  the  first  mention  of  the  navel  orange  in 
citrus  literature,  B.  M.  Lelong,  in  his  work,  "Culture  of 
the  Citrus  in  California,"  1902,  pages  52  to  53,  makes 
the  following  remarks:  "The  first  illustration  of  the 
Navel  orange  appears  in  a  volume,  'Table  xvi. — Historian 
Naturalis  de  Arboribus  et  Fructibus,  Libri  Decem.  Jo- 
hannis  Johnston!,  Medici  use  Doctoris.  Francofurti,  o — in., 
MDCLXIT.'  ('The  Natural  History  of  Trees  and  Fruits. 
Ten  Books.  By  John  Johnson,  Doctor  of  Medicine.  Frank- 
fort on  Main,  1662'),  referred  to  as  Aurantium  foetiferum 
*  *  *  Although  no  description  of  the  navel  orange  ap- 
pears in  the  text,  this  is  the  earliest  reference  known." 

In  1646  Baptiste  Ferrari,  a  monk  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  published  at  Rome  his  famous  work,  "Hesperides 
sive  de  Malorum  aureoruin  cultura  et  usu,  Libri  Quat- 
uor."  On  page  403  he  describes  and  on  page  405  illus- 


34  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

trates  a  variety  of  orange,  "Aurantium  foemima  sive  foet- 
iferum."  Of  it  Ferrari  says;  "This  Aurantium  imitates 
to  some  extent  the  fertility  of  the  tree  which  bears  it  in 
that  it  struggles,  though  unsuccessfully,  to  produce  the 
fruit  upon  itself.  *  *  *  On  the  end  of  the  fruit  is 
another,  sometimes  with  a  thin  rind  investing  it,  but  more 
frequently  naked,  so  far  at  least  as  the  pulp  (of  the  larger 
part)  is  concerned;  this  (second  fruit)  is  composed  of  an 
inner  medulla  of  about  four  spikes:  the  young  brood,  as 
it  were,  of  fruits  half  seen  pushing  out  through  the  gap- 
ing umbilicus,  which  is  sometimes  more  and  sometimes 
less  closely  compressed."  This  is  a  navel  orange  both  by 
description  and  illustration. 

There  is  such  a  striking  resemblance  between  the  il- 
lustration given  by  Ferrari  and  that  reproduced  by  Mr. 
Lelong  from  Johnson's  work  that  the  writer  is  compelled 
to  believe  that  Johnson  copied  his  illustration  directly 
from  Ferrari's  Hesperides. 

Many  writers  since  the  days  of  Ferrari  have  referred 
to  the  navel  orange,  notable  among  whom  may  be  men- 
tioned Volckamer,  who  in  his  Hesperidium  Norimbergen- 
sium,  1713,  referred  to  two  varieties  of  navel  oranges, 
"Aranzo  de  fior  doppio,"  and  Aranzo  di  fiore  Scorza 
doppio,"  which  he  described  on  pages  201-202  and  illus- 
trated on  pages  202b  and  202c. 

A  closer  study  of  citrus  literature  may  bring  to  light 
still  earlier  references  to  this  interesting  type  of  fniits. 

*  Am.    Gard.   Vol.   23.  No.   417,   Dec.    20,  1902. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE  MANDARIN  ORANGES. 

Many  writers  on  citrus  fruits  have  placed  the  man- 
darin oranges  under  the  species,  Citrus  Aurantium  Linn. 
Others  have  considered  it  a  variety  of  that  species  while 
some,  believing  it  possesses  distinctive,  specific  character- 
istics, have  followed  Lourerio  and  have  referred  it  to  his 
species  Citrus  nobilis.  In  this  latter  view  the  writer  con- 
curs, and  after  carefully  studying  the  characteristics  of 
both  the  mandarin  and  sweet  orange  groups,  believes  it 
best  to  place  the  former  under  a  species  separate  from  the 
latter. 

The  group  as  represented  in  America  is  distinct  in 
habit  of  growth  and  in  fruit  from  C.  Aurantium.  The 
leaves  of  the  mandarin  oranges  are  generally  quite  small 
and  pointed,  while  the  skin  is  easily  separated  from  the 
pulp  of  the  fruit  and  the  sections  of  the  pulp  from  one 
another.  One  noteworthy  point,  and  one  which  needs  to 
be  explained  away  by  those  who  desire  to  throw  the  two 
groups  together,  is  that  the  cotyledons  of  the  seeds  of  the 
mandarin  oranges  are  pistache  green  or  greenish  in  color, 
while  those  of  the  sweet  oranges  are  white.  Of  course  it 
must  be  granted  that  one  species  may  shade  off  into  the 
other,  but  where  such  is  the  case  any  variety  in  question 
should  be  relegated  to  the  group  of  which  it  possesses  the 
greatest  number  of  marked  characteristics. 

The  reasons  for  adopting  the  group-name  Mandarin 
are,  that  it  has  been  longer  in  use  and  is  probably  more 
widely  known  than  any  other.  Many  have  referred  to  the 
Tangierines  as  a  group,  or  sub-group, distinct  and  separate 


38  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

from  the  Mandarins.  There  may  be  reasons  of  greater  or 
less  weight  for  this  division,  but  in  this  publication  the 
name  Tangierine  has  been  discarded  in  favor  of  the  older 
name.  No  distinction  can  be  made  between  the  Mandarin 
and  the  Tangierine  oranges  so-called,  more  than  can  be 
made  between  any  two  distinct  varieties  of  fruits  in  rec- 
ognized pomological  groups.  Moreover,  the  fact  must  not 
be  overlooked  that  in  some  of  the  world's  citrus  growing 
districts  the  two  names  are  used  interchangeably. 

Two  explanations  have  been  given  for  the  name  Man- 
darin as  applied  to  this  group  of  oranges.  It  was  given 
either  because  the  fruit  was  regarded  as  the  best  of  the 
citrus  family,  just  as  the  Chinese  Mandarin  or  grandee 
stood  in  social  rank  above  his  fellowmen,  or  because  this 
orange  was  the  fruit  of  the  rich  and  therefore  only  within 
the  reach  of  the  nobility.  The  fact  that  the  fruit  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  China  and  Japan  and  that  it  is  there 
held  in  such  high  esteem  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  first 
explanation  is  the  more  correct  one. 

One  other  name,  "kid-glove  oranges,"  has  been  applied 
to  the  group.  In  explanation  of  the  origin  of  this  name 
the  remarks  of  the  late  E.  H.  Hart  before  the  twenty-second 
meeting  of  the  American  Pomological  Society  at  Ocala, 
Fla.,  in  1889,  are  self-explanatory.  "The  term  'kid-glove' 
orange,  as  applied  to  Citrus  nobilis,  originally  a  joke  of 
our  facetious  countryman,  Colonel  Dancy,  of  Orange  Mills, 
was  gravely  accepted  as  a  synonym  by  our  first  nomencla- 
ture committee,  and  like  many  another  whimsical  what- 
do-you-call-him,  it  struck,  where  one  more  dignified  would 
have  glanced  off." 

The  investigations  of  De  Candolle  and  others  show 
that  we  are  safe  in  concluding  that  the  mandarin  oranges 


THE  MANDARIN  ORANGES.  39 

had  their  origin  in  Cochin  China.    From  that  center  they 
have  been  carried  into  many  portions  of  the  world. 

Several  gaps  occur  in  the  history  of  these  oranges,  and 
yet  it  has  been  possible  to  trace  it  with  a  fair  degree  of 
accuracy.  The  first  mention  of  an  orange  which  is  believed 
to  belong  to  this  group  is  in  Steerbeck's  Citricultura, 
where  it  is  mentioned  as  the  "Muscat  apple."*  It  is  well 
within  the  limits  of  probability  that  some  member  or  mem- 
bers of  the  group  were  known  to  Rumphius  and  indeed 
Lourerio,  in  his  original  description  of  Citrus  nobilis  in 
1790,  refers  to  this  possibility.  Referring  to  the 
same  dates  and  cuts,  Bonavia  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  Aurantium  sinense  of  Rumphius 
must  be  grouped  with  the  suntara  oranges  of  India.  Hav- 
ing carefully  read  the  description  written  by  Rumphius, 
both  in  the  original  and  as  translated  by  Bonavia,  and 
after  comparing  it  with  specimens  of  the  Rangpur  lime, 
grown  by  Reason er  Bros.,  by  Bonavia  said  to  be  a  suntara 
orange,  I  must  say  that  any  attempt  to  decide  this  ques- 
tion places  one  on  exceedingly  debatable  ground. 

In  1805  two  varieties  of  mandarin  oranges  were  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Canton  by  Sir  Abraham  Hume 
and  fruit  produced  from  these  trees  was  illustrated  in  1817 
(1)  and  1824  (2).  According  to  du  Breuil  (3),  the  man- 
darin orange  was  introduced  into  Europe  (continental) 
about  1828.  In  the  vicinity  of  Parma  it  was  cultivated  on 
a  large  scale  as  early  as  1842  and  its  culture  in  the  county 
of  Niza  and  the  region  surrounding  Genoa  dates  back  to 
1849  or  1850.  The  conclusions  reached  by  du  Breuil  are 
further  substantiated  by  the  fact  that  Gallesio  appears  not 

*Steerbeck,    F.    Van.    Citricultura.      27.      1682. 

(1.)      Bot.  Reg.,    3:211.     1817. 

(2.)      Bot.  Reposit.,  9:608.     1824. 

(3.)      Hist.   Cult.   Orang.,  Risso  &  Poiteau.     49.     1872. 


40  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

to  have  known  this  tree,  and  Risso  and  Poiteau  make  no 
mention  of  its  culture  in  Europe  in  the  first  edition  of 
their  Avork.  Du  Breuil  states  that  in  commerce  a  distinc- 
tion was  made  between  the  mandarins  of  Parma  and  those 
of  Spain,  Algeria,  Mza  and  the  coast  of  Italy. 

Bonavia  says  that  the  mandarin  orange  was  probably 
introduced  into  India  from  Egypt  with  a  collection  of 
orange  trees  in  1847  (4)  and  that  a  second  introduction; 
was  made  by  himself  in  1863  (5).  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  mandarin  oranges  found  their  way  into  Egypt 
from  some  one  of  the  countries  of  southern  Europe. 

The  China  mandarin,  according  to  the  best  informa- 
tion which  can  be  secured,  was  brought  to  Louisiana  by 
the  Italian  Consul  at  New  Orleans  some  time  between  1840 
and  1850.  The  first  trees  were  planted  on  the  grounds  of 
the  consulate  at  Algiers,  across  the  river  from  New 
Orleans.  It  has  been  impossible  to  obtain  the  name  of  the 
consul  or  the  exact  date.  Shortly  after,  or  about  1850, 
some  one  of  the  mandarin  oranges  was  known  to  northern 
nurserymen,  for  Buist  (6)  in  1854,  refers  to  one  of  them 
as  a  recent  introduction,  valuable  for  pot  culture. 

The  introduction  of  the  China  mandarin  from  Louisi- 
ana into  Florida  is  credited  to  Major  Atway  by  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Florida  Fruit  Growers'  Association,  and  at 
the  time  their  report  was  made  the  original  tree  was  grow- 
ing in  the  grove  of  Dr.  Moragne  at  Palatka.  The  acci- 
dental substitution  of  one  word  for  another,  a  typographi- 
cal error,  in  Stubbs  and  Morgan's  bulletin,  "The  Orange 
and  Other  Citrus  Fruits,"  has  twisted  the  phraseology  as 
quoted  by  Moore,  Reasoner  and  others  to  read,  "Tree  of 
original  variety  introduced  by  Major  Atway,  of  Bayou 

(4-5.)    The  Cultivated  Orange  of  India  and  Ceylon.  56  and  231.  1888 
(6.)        Buist,  R.  American  Flower-Garden  Directory.     224.     1824. 


THE  MANDARIN  ORANGES.  4J 

Sara,  La."  Since  their  bulletin  was  written  in  Louisiana, 
this  reading  conveys  an  erroneous  idea. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  fix  the  date  of  introduction 
of  the  mandarin  oranges  into  Florida,  but  if  the  report 
of  the  Fruit  Growers'  Association  is  correct,  it  was,  of 
course,  subsequent  to  the  Louisiana  introduction  and  pre- 
sumably some  time  after  it.  The  origin  and  introduction 
of  each  of  the  mandarin  oranges  is  given  in  the  section  on 
varieties. 

At  the  present  time  it  may  be  said  that  the  sweet 
oranges,  lemons,  pomelos  and  mandarin  oranges  are  the 
four  important  groups  cultivated  in  America. 

Of  these  four  important  groups,  the  sweet  oranges 
occupy  the  first  place  and  are  destined  to  do  so  throughout 
the  whole  future  of  citrus  culture.  The  sweet  orange  is 
a  staple  fruit,  just  as  the  apple  is  a  staple  fruit.  It  is 
always  in  demand,  and  it  is  the  dessert  fruit  of  America, 
par  excellence. 

Considerably  more  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
culture  of  mandarin  oranges  in  Florida  than  in  California. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  mandarin 
orange  is  essentially  a  fancy  fruit  and  as  such,  commands  a 
fancy  price  in  its  season,  but  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt 
to  place  it  on  the  same  plane  with  the  sweet  orange  as  a 
staple  fruit.  The  fruit,  generally  speaking,  is  smaller  than 
the  sweet  orange.  The  bearing  capacity  of  the  tree  seldom 
reaches  and  rarely  exceeds  twelve  straps,  and  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  group  require  careful  cultivation  and  fertili- 
zation to  secure  the  best  quality.  Of  course,  this  may  be 
said  of  sweet  oranges  or  any  other  citrus  fruit,  but  it  is 
peculiarly  true  of  oranges  of  the  mandarin  group. 

Mandarin  orange  culture  is  on  a  staple  basis  in  Amer- 
ica at  the  present  time,  and  the  number  of  trees  may  be 


42  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

conservatively  increased.  Plantings  should  not  be  made 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  plantings  of  other  citrus  trees, 
and  the  object  of  every  grower  should  be,  not  so  much  to 
increase  the  output,  as  to  produce  a  fruit  of  high  quality, 
else  there  is  no  room  for  the  fruit  on  the  market.  A  good 
mandarin  orange  is  an  excellent  fruit,  a  poor  one  is  worth- 
less. It  should  be  in  all  respects  a  fancy  fruit. 

There  is  another  matter  which  must  not  be  overlooked 
in  considering  the  horticultural  status  of  this  group.  At 
present  it  contains  the  hardiest  known,  large  fruited,  edi- 
ble variety  of  citrus,  the  Satsuma.  This  variety  extends 
the  culture  of  citrus  fruits  on  a  safe  basis  far  into  the  more 
exposed  sections  of  the  country.  In  northern  Florida  and 
California  it  withstands  frost  well  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  this  fruit  (four  or  five  hundred  straps)  was 
shipped  from  the  extreme  northern  portion  of  Florida 
during  the  season  of  1902,  the  price  realized  being  from 
$4.00  to  |5.00  per  strap.  The  tree  is  hardy,  the  fruit  ma- 
tures early  and  is  very  desirable  for  shipment  during  the 
months  of  October  and  November. 

Along  the  coast  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana 
and  Texas  and  in  southeastern  Texas,  the  Satsuma  on 
Citrus  trifoliata  stock  has  been  planted  to  a  considerable 
extent.  In  Texas  particularly,  a  large  share  of  attention 
is  being  given  to  its  culture  and  the  industry  gives  prom- 
ise of  assuming  large  proportions.  If  the  trees  are  banked 
each  winter  while  young  (young  trees  are  more  likely  to 
be  injured  by  cold)  and  allowed  to  branch  low,  they  will, 
when  they  have  increased  in  age  and  size  sufficiently, 
stand  a  great  deal  of  cold.  For  a  number  of  years,  this 
orange  was  known  in  the  markets  under  the  names  Man- 
darin and  Tangierine.  Recently,  however,  it  has  been 
quoted  in  market  reports  under  its  own  name — Satsuma. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
THE   POMELOS. 

The  name  pomelo  (pi.  pomelos),  as  applied  to  the 
fruit  under  consideration,  is  the  one  now  recognized  by 
all  horticultural  writers  and  has  been  adopted  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  American 
Pomological  Society,  the  Florida  State  Horticultural  So- 
ciety and  the  California  State  Board  of  Horticulture.  The 
word  has  been  variously  spelled  pummelo,  pumalo,  pumelo, 
pumelow,  etc.,  but  the  name  and  spelling  as  adopted  in 
this  volume  are  in  accordance  with  the  present  usage  of 
American  horticulturists. 

In  1713,  in  his  Hesperidium  Norimbergensium,  pages 
181  and  189,  Volckamer  uses  the  names  pompelmoes  and 
pompelmus  and  on  page  189  a,  gives  a  very  good  illustra- 
tion of  the  pomelo  as  we  know  it.  This  is  one  of  the  ear- 
liest references  to  the  fruit  under  this  name,  although  Fer- 
rari apparently  referred  to  the  same  fruit,  or  a  closely 
related  one,  as  Aurantium  Maximum  (Hesperides,  437; 
pis.  439  and  441,  1646).  From  the  Dutch  pompelmoes  has 
come  our  modern  name  pomelo.  The  explanation  offered 
by  Bonavia  ( 1 )  of  the  derivation  of  the  Dutch  name  is  that 
they  probably  first  found  the  fruit  at  the  village  of  Pom- 
pelmousses  in  the  Mauritius  and  gave  the  name  of  the 
village  to  it.  Harris  (2)  offers  the  explanation  that  pom- 
elo is  derived  from  pomum  mclo,  the  melon-apple.  Which 
of  these  is  correct  would  be  difficult  to  say. 


1.  Gardner's    Chronicle,    27:450-451.      1900. 

2.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  Am.  Hort.,   3:1397.   1901. 


44  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Commercially  this  fruit  is  known  as  grapefruit,  and 
in  market  quotations  reference  is  nearly  always  made  to 
it  under  this  name.  This  appellation  was  given  because 
the  fruit  is  so  frequently  borne  in  grape-like  clusters  of 
from  three  or  four  to  a  dozen  and  a  half.  A  glance  at 
plate  No.  IX,  which  represents  a  cluster  of  twelve,  of 
which  eleven  are  visible,  proves  that  the  name  is  not  alto- 
gether inapplicable.  Not  only  is  the  fruit  known  in  the 
market  as  grapefruit,  but  it  is  the  name  generally  applied 
throughout  the  citrus  districts  of  the  United  States,  and 
many  people  know  it  by  none  other.  Whether  the  term — 
grapefruit — will  ever  be  superseded  in  common  use  by  the 
correct  horticultural  name — pomelo — is  extremely  doubt- 
ful. 

When  and  where  this  cognomen  was  first  used  it  would 
be  difficult  to  say,  but  John  Lunan,  in  his  Hortus  Jamai- 
censis,  Vol.  2,  page  171,  1814,  speaking  of  the  shaddock, 
says,  "There  is  a  variety  known  by  the  name  of  grapefruit 
on  account  of  its  resemblance  in  flavor  to  the  grape."  The 
Chevalier  de  Tussac,  in  his  flora  Antillarum  (Vol.  Ill, 
page  74,  1824,  calls  attention  to  the  fruit  in  these  words: 
"J'ai  eu  occasion  d'observer  a  la  Jamaique,  dans  le 
jardin  botanique  d'East,  une  espece  de  chadec  dont  les 
fruits,  qui  n'excedent  pas  en  grosseur  une  belle  orange  sont 
disposes  en  grappes;  les  Anglaise  de  la  Jamaique  donnent 
a  ce  fruit  le  non  de  forbidden  fruit,  fruit  defendu,  ou 
smaller  shaddoc,  petit  chadec." 

From  this  we  must  conclude  that  the  name  grapefruit 
originated  in  the  West  Indies,  for  I  have  not  found  the 
name  in  any  other  of  the  older  works,  except  where  the 
authors  mentioned  above  are  referred  to  or  quoted. 

The  pomelo  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  shaddock, 
variously  spelled  "shaddock,"  "chaddock"  and  "chadec." 


THE  POMELOS.  45 

Bonavia,  in  his  work  on  the  oranges  and  lemons  of  India 
and  Ceylon  makes  the  name  shaddock  synonymous  with 
pomelo.  In  the  section  of  Thomas'  Fruit  Culture  on  Sub- 
tropical Fruits,  written  by  the  late  E.  H.  Hart,  of  Federal 
Point,  Florida  (1897),  the  name  shaddock  is  used,  \vhile 
pomelo,  spelled  pummelo  in  his  article,  is  made  synony- 
mous. 

However,  we  have  no  better  name  for  this  fruit  than 


Fig-.  9.     Pomelo  Blossoms,  About  natural 'size. 

pomelo.  It  is  of  older  origin  than  either  of  the  others  (if 
with  some  writers  we  allow  the  synonymy  of  shaddock), 
the  Dutch  word  Pompelmoes,  from  which  it  is  derived, 
having  been  in  use  at  least  two  centuries  ago.  The  name 
pomelo  has  been  adopted  by  the  best  authorities  and  it  is 
by  all  means  advisable  that  they  be  followed  and  that  we 
have  some  constant  name  by  which  to  designate  the  fruit. 
The  fruit  now  designated  by  the  name  shaddock,  consid- 


46  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

ered  horticulturally,  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  pomelo, 
but,  botanical ly  considered,  the  two  cannot  be  separated; 
they  belong  to  one  species.  The  term  shaddock  is  more 
properly  applied  to  the  large  and  coarse  grained  varieties. 
There  are  some  other  points  of  distinction  between  the  two 
which  may  be  incidentally  mentioned  here,  although  the 
distinctions  are  fully  covered  in  the  section  on  shaddocks. 
The  fruit  of  the  shaddock  is  much  larger,  often  weighing 
fifteen  pounds  or  more,  the  tree  is  smaller,  the  leaves  on 
full  grown  trees  are  somewhat  larger. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  of  the  common  names 
it  will  be  seen  that  pomelo  is  the  name  given  the  prefer- 
ence, grapefruit  is  synonymous,  while  shaddock  is  relegated 
to  a  fruit  botanically  the  same  as  the  pomelo  but  horti- 
culturally  distinct. 

HORTICULTURAL.    STATUS     OF    THE    POMELO. 

No  fruit  of  importance  now  grown  in  the  United 
States  has  such  a  meagre  American  literature  as  the  pom- 
elo. Nor  is  this  strange  when  we  remember  the  fact  that 
it  is  only  within  the  last  fifteen  years  or  so  that  the  pom- 
elo has  been  regarded  as  a  commercial  fruit.  After  having 
been  neglected  for  years,  while  the  whole  attention  of 
growers  of  citrus  fruits  was  directed  to  the  orange  and 
all  their  energies  put  forth  in  bringing  that  fruit  to  perfec- 
tion, it  has  only  in  very  recent  years  taken  its  present  posi- 
tion, to  which  the  critical  taste  of  fruit  consumers  has 
raised  it. 

The  pomelo  was  brought  to  Florida  together  with 
other  members  of  the  genus  citrus  by  the  Spaniards,  who, 
under  the  leadership  of  Ponce  de  Leon,  first  landed  upon 
the  east  coast  of  Florida  in  the  year  1513.  From  that  time 
until  1821  they  disputed  the  possession  of  the  State  with 


THE  POMELOS.  47 

their  enemies  in  the  Old  World  and  the  aborigines  of  the 
country,  except  during  a  period  of  twenty  years — 1763- 
1783 — during  which  time  Great  Britain  controlled  the 
territory. 

During  the  Spanish  regime  different  citrus  fruits 
were  introduced  and  cultivated  in  Florida.  These,  through 
the  agency  of  the  Indian,  were  carried  into  all  parts  of 
the  State.  To  this  day  the  common  lime,  generally  known 
as  the  Florida  lime,  the  rough  lemon  and  the  sour  orange 
are  to  be  found  in  southern  Florida  growing  luxuriantly 
under  such  conditions  as  would  lead  one,  ignorant  of  their 
origin  and  native  home,  to  believe  them  to  be  indigenous 
to  the  soil  on  which  they  stand. 

Following  the  time  of  introduction,  in  many  groves 
and  gardens  throughout  Florida,  pomelo  trees  were  to 
be  found,  annually  laden  with  hundreds  of  fruits.  By  the 
inhabitants  the  fruit  was  considered  refreshing  and  tonic, 
but  that  it  might  have  a  commercial  value  did  not  enter  the 
minds  of  the  owners,  or  if  it  did,  transportation  in  its  then 
crude  state  rendered  any  attempt  to  place  this  then 
unknown  and  unappreciated  fruit  on  the  market,  with  an 
expectation  of  profit,  a  precarious  and  uncertain  under- 
taking. Consequently  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  during 
a  certain  portion  of  the  year  was  covered  with  the  yellow 
fruit  left  to  rot  in  the  sun. 

Just  at  this  point  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  this 
group  of  fruits  was  either  unknown  to  or  disliked  by  hor- 
ticultural writers,  or  confounded  with  the  shaddock  even 
within  very  recent  years.  George  Don,  in  his  Gardener's 
Dictionary,  page  596,  1831,  says,  "The  shaddock  is  cer- 
tainly the  least  useful  of  the  species  and  is  cultivated 
chiefly  for  show."  Alexander  Watson  (1)  in  1859  wrote 


1.     The  American  Home  Garden,  page  363.     1859. 


48  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  following:  "Shaddock  is  a  still  larger  fruit  (than  the 
citron)*,  in  form  more  resembling  the  orange,  curious,  but 
worthless."  W.  N.  White  (2),  in  1868,  says:  "Pulp  dry, 
sweetish  or  subacid,  but  not  very  desirable,  except  for  its 
showy  appearance."  Rev.  T.  W.  Moore,  in  his  Hand  Book 
of  Orange  Culture,  1881,  does  not  mention  it.  Thomas,  in 
his  Fruit  Culturist,  makes  no  reference  to  it  up  as  late  as 
the  edition  of  1885.  Wm.  A.  Spalding  (3),  in  1885,  makes 
the  following  remark:  "Meanwhile  the  Pumalo  and  its 
congeners,  when  allowed  growing  space,  continue  to  load 
themselves  down  with  fruit  as  large  as  footballs.  They 
are  matters  of  wonder  and  that  is  all."  Chas.  Downing 
(4)  (1885),  under  the  head  of  Shaddock,  has  the  follow- 
ing note:  "The  pulp  is  sweetish  or  subacid  and  the  juice 
is  rather  refreshing.  It  is,  however,  more  showy  than 
useful,  and  certainly  makes  a  magnificent  appearance  in 
a  collection  of  tropical  fruits." 

Northern  visitors  to  Florida  learned  to  know  and  like 
the  pomelo  and  a  certain  demand  was  created  by  their 
desire  for  the  fruit  upon  their  return.  Somewhere  about 
1880  or  1885  the  first  pomelos  were  shipped  from  the  State, 
sold  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and  netted  the  ship- 
pers about  fifty  cents  per  barrel.  This  was  the  beginning 
and  better  prices  were  soon  realized.  The  freeze  of  1894- 
95  greatly  reduced  the  Florida  crop  and  the  small  amount 
of  fruit  sold  that  year  brought  an  enormous  price,  in  some 
cases  as  much  as  f  15  or  $20  per  box. 

With  a  return  of  normal  climatic  conditions  in  Flor- 
ida and  a  consequent  increase  in  the  quantity  of  fruit  the 
price  has  dropped,  the  crop  now  generally  bringing  from 
$4  to  |7  per  box  for  good  fruit  and  less  for  inferior  pack- 

2.  Gardening  for  the   South,   page   384.     1868. 

3.  The  Orange  in  California,  page  89.     1885. 

4.  Downing's  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,  page  579.      1885. 
*(  )    Inserted  by   the  author. 


THE  POMELOS.  49 

ages.  Very  extensive  plantings  have  been  made  in  Florida, 
California  and  elsewhere  within  the  past  six  or  seven  years 
and  it  is  highly  probable  that  prices  in  the  future  will  not 
equal  those  in  the  past.  Up  to,  this  time  the  supply  has 
generally  been  inadequate  to  the  demand,  but  with  the 
increase  in  the  amount  of  fruit  a  state  of  equilibrium 
between  the  supply  and  the  demand  will  soon  be  reached. 
It  is  safe  to  predict  that  with  a  favorable  climate  the 
future  price  realized  for  pomelos  will  be  much  lower  than 
the  present  one.  The  tree  is  a  heavy  bearer;  it  is  no 
harder  to  propagate  and  care  for  than  an  orange  tree;  it 
comes  into  bearing  as  early;  heavy  plantings  have  been 
made,  then  why  will  it  not  eventually  be  placed  on  the 
same  basis  w^ith  the  orange? 

On  the  other  hand  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  there 
are  many  markets  in  which  the  pomelo  is  not  known,  and 
as  it  becomes  better  known  and  more  widely  disseminated, 
the  demand  will  increase.  This  is  likely  to  maintain  the 
present  prices  for  some  time  to  come,  but  though  it  is 
believed  that  a  balance  will  eventually  be  reached,  and 
(hat  after  a  time  the  ruling  price  will  be  lower  than  at  pres- 
ent, to  the  careful,  painstaking  grower  this  need  cause  no 
uneasiness.  There  will  always  be  a  good  demand  for  a 
first-class  fruit,  well  colored,  well  grown,  carefully 
selected,  well  packed  and  placed  upon  the  market  in  invit- 
ing shape. 

At  present  it  seems  probable  that  Florida  will  retain 
control  of  the  pomelo  market  for  some  time  to  come,  proba- 
bly indefinitely,  if  the  growers  in  that  district  are  careful 
in  maintaining  the  present  excellence  of  the  product.  The 
California  product  has  not  up  to  this  time  met  with  the 
same  favor  in  the  markets,  though  it  is  possible  that  varie- 


50  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

ties  may  yet  be  brought  forward  better  suited  to  the  con- 
ditions in  that  State. 

As  a  breakfast  fruit  the  pomelo  stands  without  an 
equal.  It  is  an  excellent  appetizer  and  stomachic  and  prob- 
ably contains  tonic  properties  as  well.  It  is  frequently 
stated  that  it  contains  an  alkaloid  peculiar  to  itself,  but 
its  presence  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  by  the  chemist. 
The  partitions  of  the  fruit  contain  a  bitter  principle  of 
some  kind.  Some  have  thought  it  would  be  better  to  have 
this  eliminated  and  that  those  varieties  in  which  the  bitter- 
ness is  almost  lacking  are  the  better  ones.  But  with  this 
entirely  absent,  the  fruit  would  not  be  a  pomelo.  The 
ideal  fruit  should  have  the  bitter  taste  rather  pronounced ; 
the  flavor  should  be  characteristic  of  the  pomelo — a  pleas- 
ant, indescribable  blending  of  bitter,  sweet  and  acid. 
Lacking  this,  it  falls  short  of  the  standard  of  excellence 
and  must  be  classed  as  inferior. 

In  Cuba,  pomelos  of  excellent  quality  are  produced. 
They  closely  resemble  the  Florida  fruit  in  flavor  and 
general  character.  The  favorite  varieties  at  the  present 
time,  are  Duncan,  Marsh  Seedless  and  Walters,  and  these 
appear  to  give  excellent  satisfaction.  Plantings  of  con- 
siderable extent  have  been  made,  most  of  the  trees  having 
been  supplied  from  Florida  nurseries. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE    SHADDOCKS. 

The  Shaddock  was  introduced  into  Barbados  at  an 
early  date  and  from  there  carried  to  the  adjoining  islands 
and  the  adjacent  mainland.  Hans  Sloane,  in  his  work,  A 
Voyage  to  the  Islands  of  Madeira,  Barbados,  etc.  (Vol. 
1,  page  41,  1707),  tells  of  the  origin  of  the  name  and  also 
of  the  introduction  of  the  shaddock  into  the  Barbados  in 
these  words :  "The  Seed  of  this  was  first  brought  to  Bar- 
bados by  one  Captain  Shaddock,  Commander  of  an  East 
India  Ship,  who  touched  at  that  Island  in  his  Passage  to 
England  and  left  its  Seed  there."  The  date,  unfortunately, 
is  not  given.  A  good  illustration  of  the  fruit  and  leaf  is 
given  by  Sloane. 

As  a  group,  the  shaddocks  are  not  of  any  commercial 
importance  and  but  few  trees  are  to  be  found  either  in 
California  or  Florida.  They  are  regarded  somewhat  as 
curiosities.  As  an  ornamental,  the  tree  is  of  considerable 
value,  but  the  pomelo  has  the  advantage  of  combining 
utility  with  beauty.  The  fruit  is  used  quite  extensively 
for  decorative  purposes  by  the  Chinese,  who  an- 
nually import  thousands  of  them  into  California  to 
bedeck  their  homes  and  joss-houses  for  their  New  Year 
festivities.  To  them  it  is  known  as  gon  lack  and  yu  shu. 

As  already  pointed  out  .the  pomelo  and  shaddock  have 
been  regarded  by  some  writers  as  one  and  the  same  fruit, 
and  though  both  have  been  placed  with  the  sweet  oranges, 
they  are,  horticulturally,  distinct  fruits  and  belong  to  an 
entirely  separate  species  from  the  oranges.  Botanically 


52  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

considered,  the  pomelo  and  shaddock  belong  to  the  same 
species,  C.  decumana  L.,  but  from  the  cultural  standpoint 
they  are  quite  different. 

The  fruit -of  the  shaddock  is  either  pyriform  or  oblate 
in  shape  and  is  larger  than  any  other  citrus  fruit,  some- 
times reaching  a  weight  of  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds.  It 
is  very  coarse,  with  a  thick  rind  and  thick,  leathery  septa 
between  the  sections  of  the  fruit.  The  juice  sacks  are  not 
tightly  bound  together,  as  in  the  pomelo,  but  are  loosely 
united.  The  juice  is  acid,  bitter  and  comparatively  scant. 
Everything  considered,  it  is  very  much  inferior  to  the 
pomelo.  In  the  two  varieties  grown  in  Florida  it  has  been 
observed  in  every  specimen  examined  that  the  septa 
between  the  sections  of  the  fruit  is  not  continuous  around 
the  inner  end,  but  the  uncovered  ends  of  the  juice  sacks 
project  into  the  open  core.  Whether  this  peculiarity  is 
constant  or  not,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  I  have  never 
observed  it  in  any  other  citrus  fruit. 

While  the  shaddock  is  a  somewhat  smaller  tree  than 
the  pomelo,  and  possibly  not  such  a  rapid  grower,  it  is 
likely  that  it  might  prove  useful  as  a  stock  for  other  citrus 
fruits  in  the  islands. 


Fig.  10.     Kumquat  Flowers 
nearly  natural  size. 


CHAPTER  X. 
THE  K  U  M  Q  U  A  T  S. 

Quite  a  number  of  common 
names  have  been  given  for  mis 
fruit.     Thunberg  gives  the  com- 
mon   name,    kinkan.      Lourerio 
gives   the   common    names   Kin 
Kuit,  Kin  and  Kuit  Xu  for  the 
round   fruit  and   Chu   tsu  and 
Ohantu    for   the    oblong    form. 
Kaempfer    gives    the    common 
names  Kin  Kan  and  Fime  Tats 
banna,    while    Roxburgh    uses 
the    common    name,    kumquat. 
Siebold  and  Zuccarina,  in  their 
Flora  of  Japan,  page  35,  1826, 
give  the  common  names  kin  kan 
or  kin  kit  to  the  round  variety, 
while  to  the  elliptical,  or  oblong 
one,   the  name  too   kin  kan  is 
given.     It  might  be  added  that 
Siebold   and   Zuccarina   give  a 
better  illustration  of  this  fruit 
than  has  been  published  in  any 
other  work.     The  commonly  ac- 
cepted    name     for    this     fruit 
throughout   the    United    States 
is   kumquat,   and   this   appears 
to  be  the  common  name  in  India. 
Kumquat,     sometimes     spelled 
"comquot,"    "Kum    Quat"    and 
"Cumquot,"  is  a  Chinese  word, 
meaning  "gold  orange''  and  the 
Japanese    equivalent     is     "kin 
kan." 


54  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  kumquat  was  probably  first  mentioned  in  horticul- 
tural literature  by  Kaempfer,  who  gave  the  following  de- 
scription of  it  in  his  Amoenit.  Exoticarum,  page  801,  1712 : 
"Mains  Limonia  fructu  pumilo  aureo,  medulla  dulci." 
Besides,  he  used  the  common  name,  Kin  Kan  in  referring 
to  this  fruit.  That  it  was  also  known  to  Rumphitis  there 
is  little  room  to  doubt.  In  1741  he  described  and  illus- 
trated it  in  his  Flora  Amboyn.,  1  vol.,  page  110,  tab.  31. 
In  1784  Thunberg  described  it  under  the  name,  Citrus 
Japonica,,  and  since  that  time  it  has  been  repeatedly 
described  by  different  botanical  and  horticultural  writers. 
To  some  of  these  the  fruit  was  known,  to  others  it  was 
not,  and  they  apparently  based  their  remarks  upon  the 
descriptions  published  by  previous  writers.  It  may  be 
interesting  to  give  here  a  list  of  scientific  names  which  at 
different  times  have  been  applied  to  the  kumquat. 

Malus    Limonia    fructu    pumilo    aureo   Kaemp.  Amoenit.  exotic, 

801.     1712. 

Limonellus   Madurensis  Rump,   Fl.  Amboyn.     2:110,  t.   31.     1741. 
Citrus  japonica  Thunb.     Fl.  Jap.,   292.      1784. 
Citrus  japonica  Murr.  Linn.     2:697.     1784. 
Citrus  Madurensis  Lour.     Fl.  Cochin  China.      467.     1790. 
Citrus  Margarita  Lour.     1.   c.   above. 
Citrus  japonica  Wild.  Spec.  Plant.  Linn.  3:  1426.    1803. 
Acrumen  japonicum  Gall.  Traite  du  Citrus.     182.     1811. 
Citrus   inermis  Roxb.  Fl.   Ind.      393.      1832. 

The  introduction  of  the  kumquat  into  Europe  appears 
to  have  been  quite  recent.  Gallesio  seems  not  to  have 
known  it.  Risso  and  Poiteau  make  no  mention  of  it  in 
their  exhaustive  work,  "Histoire  et  Culture  des  Grangers." 
Since  none  of  these  writers  refer  to  the  kumquats,  we  are 
safe  in  concluding  that  they  were  not  grown  in  Europe 
at  the  time  they  wrote.  So  far  as  the  author  has  been 
able  to  find  out,  the  kumquat  was  introduced  into  Europe 
by  Mr.  Fortune,  a  collector  for  the  London  Horticultural 


THE  KUMQUAT  8.  55 

Society,  who  brought  it  with  him  from  China  to  London, 
May  6,  1846.  It  was  one  plant  of  a  lot  collected  in  the 
districts  of  Foo-chow-foo,  Chusan  and  Ningpo,  China. 

The  Nagami  (oblong)  variety  appears  to  have  been 
the  only  one  introduced  by  him,  for  in  his  remarks,  pub- 
lished in  the  Journal  of  the  London  Horticultural  Society, 
page  239,  1848,  he  says,  "The  fruit  ripens  late  in  the 
autumn,  being  then  about  the  size  of  a  large  oval  goose- 
berry." Very  soon  afterward  specimens  of  the  kumquat 
must  have  been  forwarded  to  America.  A.  J.  Downing, 
in  his  Horticulturist,  of  February,  1850,  pages  375-377, 
gives  a  description  of  the  variety  Nagami,  with  illustra- 
tions, and  quotes  largely  from  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Fortune. 
He  further  makes  the  following  statement:  "We  have  a 
small  tree  growing  on  our  own  grounds,  which  was  kindly 
sent  us  by  Mr.  Ranch,  exotic  florist,  near  Greenwood  Cem- 
etery, Brooklyn.  We  believe  Mr.  Buist,  of  Philadelphia, 
and  probably  other  men,  now  have  it  for  sale,  so  that 
amateurs  can  make  trial  of  it  in  various  parts  of  the 
country."  Some  time  later,  probably  very  shortly  after 
this  date,  it  was  brought  to  Florida.  Since  then  several 
importations  have  been  made  by  various  nurserymen.  The 
original  trees  imported  by  G.  L.  Taber,  of  Glen  St.  Mary, 
in  1885,  were  still  standing  in  his  grove  in  the  autumn  of 
1901.  Eeasoner  Bros.,  of  Oneco,  imported  the  variety 
Nagami  in  1885  and  the  Marumi  in  1890  from  Japan. 

The  kumquat  can  scarcely  be  considered  a  tree,  it 
partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  a  shrub  or  bush. 

The  largest  and  most  symmetrical  kumquat  bushes 
with  which  the  author  is  acquainted  are  those  growing  in 
the  grove,  until  recently  owned  by  Mr.  John  Thompson, 
at  Clearwater,  Fla.  The  following  are  the  actual  meas- 
urements made  December  10,  1901: 


56  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Nagami,  height  10  feet,  9  inches;  distance  across  the 
head,  10  feet,  8  inches;  stock,  rough  lemon. 

Nagami,  height  9  feet,  3  inches;  distance  across  the 
head,  11  feet,  8  inches;  stock,  rough  lemon. 

Nagami,  height  8  feet,  2  inches;  distance  across  the 
head,  8  feet;  stock,  sweet  orange. 

Marumi,  height  8  feet,  8  inches;  distance  across  the 
head,  8  feet;  stock,  pomelo. 

These  were  budded  in  1894  on  two-year-old  stocks 
and  were  set  out  in  their  present  position  and  started 
growth  in  the  spring  of  1895.  The  tops  are  round  and 
symmetrical,  as  the  measurements  would  indicate,  and  the 
branches  sweep  the  ground. 

A  large  Nagami  kumquat  may  also  be  seen  on  the 
grounds  of  Reasoner  Bros.,  at  Oneco,  Fla.  The  specimen 
is  10  feet  high  and  10  feet,  6  inches  across  the  top,  while 
the  trunk  is  4  inches  in  diameter  just  above  the  union  with 
the  stock.  The  stock  is  a  rough  lemon  shoot.  The  tree 
is  badly  shaded  and  the  top,  in  consequence,  is  not  sym- 
metrical, but  it  bears  well.  At  the  time  it  was  observed 
and  measured  (December,  1901)  it  was  carrying  a  crop 
of  from  three  thousand  to  three  thousand  five  hundred 
fruits,  of  which  it  takes  from  forty  to  fifty  to  make  a  quart. 

Seedling  kumquats  would  not  attain  the  size  of  those 
budded  upon  strong,  vigorous  stocks. 

As  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  Mandarin  Oranges, 
they  are  an  exceedingly  hardy  group  of  fruits,  but  the 
hardiest  members  of  that  group  are  fully  equalled  by  the 
kumquats.  While  all  of  them  are  quite  hardy,  the  variety 
Marumi  appears  to  be  considerably  hardier  than  Nagami. 

Mr.  Fortune  saw  large  numbers  of  these  plants  in 
Southern  China,  where  they  were  grown  in  pots,  and  said 
that  it  was  a  common  plant  in  the  nursery  gardens  of 


THE  KUMQUAT  8.  57 

Fa-Tee.  He  believed,  however,  that  it  was  of  more  north- 
ern origin,  for  he  had  met  with  numerous  groves  of  it  on 
the  island  of  Chusan  and  elsewhere  in  that  portion  of 
China.  There  it  grew  in  far  greater  perfection  than  in 
the  vicinity  of  Canton.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  kumquat  in  China  extends  at  least  from 
latitude  20  to  30  degrees,  a  range  of  10  degrees.  It  might 
be  noted  here  that  the  main  portion  of  Japan  lies  between 
30  and  48  degrees,  but  the  kumquat  is  cultivated  proba- 
bly only  in  the  southern  portions  of  that  country.  It 
must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  neither  the  climate  of 
Japan  nor  of  those  portions  of  China  to  which  reference 
has  just  been  made,  is  by  any  means  so  variable  as  the 
climate  of  some  of  the  citrus  districts  in  our  own  country. 
In  Northern  Florida  the  kumquat  has  proved  quite  hardy 
and  it  appears  to  be  considerably  hardier  than  most  other 
members  of  the  citrus  family.  The  natural  hardiness  of 
the  kumquat  is  increased  by  using  Citrus  trifoliata  as  a 
stock  and  the  low  dwarfish  habit  of  the  tree  gives  every 
opportunity  for  successful  and  economical  protection. 

The  fruit  may  be  eaten  raw,  and  when  served  in  small 
glasses  holding  three  or  four  fruits,  they  make  a  very 
pretty  addition  to  the  table.  If  cut  with  leaves  attached 
they  may  be  used  as  table  decorations.  In  eating  the  fruit 
the  skin  is  not  removed,  and  the  spicy,  aromatic  rind  and 
acid  pulp  make  a  very  delightful  and  palatable  combina- 
tion. An  excellent  preserve  can  also  be  made  from  the 
fruit;  and  the  Chinese  export  considerable  quantities  put 
up  in  small  stone  jars. 

The  kumquat  cannot  be  regarded  as  anything  else 
than  a  fancy  fruit,  and  in  most  cases  a  demand  must  be 
created.  Any  market  in  the  country  could  very  easily  be 
glutted  by  large  shipments,  but  in  a  small  way,  the  fruit 


58  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

is  profitable.  It  is  a  comparatively  new  fruit  and  few 
people  know  what  it  is.  As  its  merits  become  better  known, 
the  demand  for  it  will  undoubtedly  increase.  At  present 
it  brings  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  cents  a  quart 
when  carefullv  marketed. 


CHAPTER    XL 
THE    CITRONS. 

The  culture  of  few  fruits  antedates  that  of  the  citron. 
Of  all  the  citrus  fruits  it  was  the  only  one  known  to  class- 
ical writers.  In  Media  and  Persia  and  later  in  Palestine, 
it  was  cultivated  at  a  very  early  date  and  in  these  countries 
the  Greeks  and  Komans  probably  first  met  with  it.  The 
Greek  writer,  Theophrastus,  shortly  after  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  gave  a  minute  and  unmistakable 
description  of  the  citron  tree,  or,  as  it  was  then  called, 
the  Median  or  Persian  apple.  Virgil  was  one  of  the  first 
Roman  writers  to  mention  it  and  used  the  same  name  as 
Theophrastus.  By  Pliny's  time,  the  fruit  had  been  suf- 
ficiently long  in  cultivation  to  receive  a  number  of  names, 
and  he  is  the  first  to  make  use  of  the  name  Citrus,  the 
botanical  name  afterwards  adopted  by  Linnaeus  for  all  the 
related  fruits  as  well  as  the  citron.  It  appears,  however, 
that  the  fruit  was  known  by  the  Romans  and  imported  into 
Rome  long  before  it  was  cultivated  there.  But  when  its 
culture  was  finally  established  in  Greece,  Italy  and  the 
adjacent  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  it  became  one  of 
the  important  fruits  in  those  regions  into  which  it  was 
introduced  and  there  it  is  grown  to  this  day. 

When  it  was  first  introduced  into  America  is  merely 
a  matter  of  conjecture.  But  it  must  have  been  brought 
to  the  West  Indies  and  to  South  America  (Brazil)  shortly 
after  the  discovery  of  the  continent.  The  early  Spanish 
writers  on  the  history  of  the  New  World  bear  testimony 
to  this  fact. 

But  the  citron  did  not  receive  the  attention  bestowed 
upon  the  orange.  This  may  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that 


(JO  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  most  important  product  obtained  from  the  citron  is 
the  candied  peel,  a  commodity  restricted  in  its  uses  and  of 
little  importance  to  pioneers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lus- 
cious orange  was  at  all  times  a  much  appreciated  addition 
to  their  limited  bill  of  fare,  while  the  acid  of  the  lemon 
and  lime  is  particularly  refreshing  in  warm  climates. 
Hence  we  can  see  that  there  is  a  good  reason  why  these1 
fruits  would  be  cultivated  to  the  neglect  of  the  less  impor- 
tant citron. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  the  candied  citron  peel  used 
in  America  (12,000)  cases  of  some  250  pounds,  according 
to  Lelong)  is  mostly  imported  in  brine  from  Leghorn, 
Italy.  By  shipping  it  in  the  brine,  duty  is  avoided.  The 
salt  is  steeped  out  and  the  peel  candied  in  New  York  and 
Chicago.  Some  candied  peel  is  imported. 

More  or  less  interest  has  always  been  taken  in  the 
citron  and  its  culture.  The  varieties  cultivated  in  Europe 
have  been  imported  and  grown.  Small  plantings  have 
been  made  both  in  Florida  and  California.  At  present, 
interest  in  the  citron  has  died  out  almost  entirely  in  Flor- 
ida, but  in  California  it  still  receives  attention.  Experi- 
mental lots  of  candied  citron  peel  of  excellent  quality, 
fully  equal  to  the  imported  product  have  been  produced. 
Whether  its  culture  will  ever  be  increased  sufficiently  to 
produce  enough  peel  to  supply  the  American  demand  is 
somewhat  problematical.  There  is  a  probability,  however, 
that  such  will  be  the  case,  but  the  industry  will  need  the 
fostering  care  of  a  protective  tariff  on  the  peel  imported 
in  brine.  The  citron  succeeds  well  in  the  lemon  districts 
of  California  and  there  alone  large  quantities  of  fruit 
could  be  grown.  In  the  warmer  parts  of  Florida  and  in 
the  Islands  the  citron  could  also  be  grown,  if  its  culture 
were  placed  on  a  remunerative  basis. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
THE  LEMONS. 


Fig-.  11, 


Flowers  of  Villafranca  Lemon, 
natural  size. 


The  lemons   were 
probably  introduced 
into    Europe   about 
the    same    time    as 
the    sweet    orange. 
Numbers    of    them 
are     described     by 
Ferrari,  Volckamer, 
Commelyn,     Sickler 
and   other   writers. 
As  a  commercial  in- 
dustry,   lemon    cul- 
ture   assumed    very 
considerable       pro 
portions    in    Sicily, 
Corsica,  Genoa,  and 
other  parts  of  south- 
ern    Europe    many 
years  ago.    Most  of 
the  world's  markets 
have  been  supplied 
with  these  lemons, 
even   up  to  within 
very   recent   years. 
There  has  beefi  no 
falling  off  in  their 
culture      and     the 
European    markets 
are   still     supplied 
from  the  same  dis- 
tricts.     There   has 
been      a         con- 
eiderable  decrease 
in  the  amount  of 


62  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

fruit  exported  from  the  Mediterranean  to  America  because 
of  the  increase  in  the  number  of  lemons  grown  at  home. 

Lemons  were  introduced  into  America  at  an  early  date 
by  the  Spaniards.  The  everbearing  and  rough  lemons 
are  in  all  probability  Spanish  introductions.  The  latter 
variety  still  grows  in  a  wild  state  in  southern  Florida 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  of 
these  Varieties  is  of  no  commercial  importance  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact  nearly  all  the  varieties  now  cultivated  in 
America — Genoa,  Lisbon,  Villafranca,  for  instance — were 
introduced  quite  recently  from  Europe. 

Previous  to  1894  the  lemon  industry  in  Florida  was 
of  considerable  importance,  but  the  severe  freeze  of  that 
winter  greatly  reduced  the  output.  Previous  to  that  dis- 
aster, at  least  140,000  boxes  of  lemons  were  shipped  out 
of  Florida  in  one  season,  but  the  industry  has  not  been 
built  up  again,  and  in  the  season  of  1901-02  but  1,447  were 
produced.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  industry  will  ever 
again  assume  the  important  place  which  it  once  held.  The 
lemon  tree  is  quite  tender,  being  more  subject  to  frost 
than  the  sweet  orange,  and  in  recent  years  the  attention 
of  Florida  planters  has  been  directed  to  the  pomelo  rather 
than  the  lemon.  It  may  be,  however,  that  lemon  growing 
may  become  of  some  importance  in  the  extreme  southern 
portion  of  the  State. 

But  the  success  which  has  attended  the  culture  of  the 
lemon  in  California  is  quite  remarkable.  In  the  southern 
and  central  parts  of  the  State,  on  the  mesas  and  foothills, 
the  lemon  grows  and  fruits  well.  The  industry  there  has 
been  placed  on  a  paying  basis  wherever  suitable  soil  and 
climatic  condition  are  found,  and  where  sufficient  water 
has  been  secured.  The  fruit  is  of  superior  quality  and  has 
been  well  received  in  the  American  markets.  As  a  result 


THE  LEMONS.  63 

of  this  there  has  been  a  decrease  in  lemon  importations 
from  southern  Europe.  The  California  crop  in  1902  was 
about  600,000  boxes  and  everything  points  to  a  material 
increase  in  the  output.  The  product  has  secured  a  perma- 
nent place  in  our  markets. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  we  shall  see  considerable 
attention  given  to  the  lemon  industry  in  the  Islands.  The 
next  decade  may  see  the  lemons  of  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  in 
quantity  in  the  large  markets  of  this  country. 

The  lemon  is  used  in  more  different  ways  than  any 
other  citrus  fruit.  From  the  rind  lemon  oil  is  extracted. 
It  is  also  used  in  making  candied  lemon  peel,  most  of 
which  is  manufactured  in  Italy.  From  the  pulp,  citrate  of 
lime,  citric  acid  and  lemon  juice  are  obtained.  The  fruit 
is  also  extensively  used  in  making  lemonade  and  for  flavor- 
ing food  and  drinks  of  different  kinds.  In  fact,  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  lemons  are  used  for  the  last  men- 
tioned purposes. 

As  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  Stocks  for  Citrus 
Trees,  the  rough  lemon  is  very  valuable  as  a  stock  for  cer- 
tain kinds  of  soil  and  is  now  extensively  used  in  Florida 
and  the  Islands.  It  is  the  only  variety  of  the  group  free 
from  the  attacks  of  mal-di-goma. 


Plate  III. 


C.  trifoliata,  Fruit,  Leaves  and  Thorns. 
(Natural    Size.) 


CHAPTER    XIII 


THE  LIMES. 

The  acid  limes,  the  only  ones  grown  on  a  commercial 
scale  in  America,  have  quite  generally  been  confused  with  the 
lemons,  from  which  they  are  distinct.  In  habit  of  growth, 
in  the  winged  petioles,  in 
the  clustered  blossoms,  in 
the  flavor  of  the  fruit, 
they  are  sui  generis. 

Owing  to  their  having 
been  grouped  with  the 
lemons,  it  is  difficult  to 
trace  their  history.  They 
are  mentioned  by  a  num- 
ber of  the  early  writers 
on  citrus  fruits — Fer- 
rari, Rumphius,  Volcka- 
mer  and  others.  Sloane 
enumerates  a  number  of 
varieties  in  his  Cata- 
logue of  the  Plants  of  Ja- 
maica^ 

The  lime  was  intro- 
duced into  the  West  Ind- 
ies and  other  parts  of  the 
New  World  by  the  Span- 
iards at  an  early  date.  It 
has  become  naturalized, 
and  may  be  found  in 

many     parts     Of     tropical  about  natural  size. 

and  sub-tropical  America,  growing  side  by  side  with  the 
native  trees. 


Fig.  12.  Flower  Buds  of  Mexican  Lime, 


66  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Since  the  tree  is  very  tender  (even  more  so  than  the 
lemon),  it  is  not  found  in  regions  exposed  to  frost  and  its 
culture  is,  and  must  be,  confined  to  districts  exempt  from 
heavy  frosts. 

No  other  spiecies  of  citrus  succeeds  so  well  on  poor 
sandy  soils,  or  on  the  rocky  soils  of  the  Florida  Keys,  as 
the  lime.  It  grows  and  fruits  quite  well  when  poorly  cul- 
tivated and  cared  for,  or  even  neglected  entirely. 

The  Mexican  lime,  the  most  common  variety  in  Flor- 
ida and  the  Islands,  is  propagated  entirely  from  seed,  as 
a  result  of  which  it  has  varied  greatly  and  at  present  the 
name  Mexican  is  little  better  than  a  group  name,  embrac- 
ing a  conglomeration  of  distinct  forms.  The  fruit  is  very 
variable  in  size  and  shape,  that  borne  by  some  trees  being 
scarcely  larger  than  a  pigeon's  egg,  while  others  produce 
fruit  as  large  as  an  ordinary  medium-sized  lemon.  The 
name  stands  for  no  definite  fruit. 

If  more  attention  were  paid  to  the  propagation  of 
this  group  of  limes,  good  fruit  of  uniform  size  and  quality 
could  readily  be  secured  by  selection,  but  under  the  present 
careless  system,  much  of  it  is  very  inferior.  Most  of  the 
groves  which  have  been  set  are  of  the  Tahiti  variety,  though 
in  California  one  or  two  other  varieties  are  planted  to 
some  extent.  The  so-called  Kangpur  lime  is  a  prolific 
variety,  the  fruit  of  which  is  very  acid  and  well  flavored. 
It  should  not  properly  be  classed  with  the  limes,  but  I  have 
placed  it  in  the  group  provisionally. 

The  lime  is  used  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  lemon, 
in  the  making  of  "limeade"  and  for  seasoning  food.  Citric 
acid  and  lime  juice  are  obtained  from  the  lime.  At  present 
most  of  the  product  comes  from  the  West  Indies,  but  there 
is  no  reason  why  they  could  not  be  manufactured  in  South- 
ern California  and  Florida  as  well. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
TRIFOLIATE  ORANGE  GROUP— VARIETIES. 

Trifoliate.  Form  round  or  sometimes  slightly  pyri- 
form;  size  small,  13-4x2  inches,  21-8x2  inches;  color 
lemon  yellow  or  light  orange;  apex  creased,  depressed,  or 
with  a  slight  creased  elevation  set  in  a  ringed  depression, 
generally  terminated  by  a  small  dark  speck ;  base  elevated, 
creased  and  ridged ;  calyx  represented  by  a  ring  minus  the 
points  of  the  segments;  rind  about  1-8  inch  thick,  rough, 
pitted,  covered  with  minute  hairs,  rather  easily  detached ; 
oil  cells  depressed,  oval  or  nearly  globose,  filled  with  a  sort 
of  resinous,  strongly  aromatic  oil;  sections  quite  regular, 
not  clearly  defined,  six  in  number,  flesh  greenish;  juice 
sacks  very  slender,  pointed;  juice  clear,  acid;  flavor  quite 
good  when  not  mingled  with  the  oil  of  the  rind ;  pith  small, 
compact;  seeds  numerous,  twenty-five  to  thirty  oval, 
plump,  rounded  at  one  end,  blunt  pointed  at  the  other,  the 
rounded  end  marked  with  a  round  brown  spot;  season 
September-October. 

Grown  as  a  stock  on  which  to  work  other  varieties 
of  citrus  fruits,  particularly  for  planting  in  frosty  reg- 
ions. Introduced  in  1869  by  the  late  Wm.  Saunders,  U. 
S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

HYBRIDS. 

Colman.  (Hybrid  772).  Form  round  and  slightly 
flattened,  sometimes  lopsided;  large,  2%  x  3%  inches; 
calyx,  small;  color,  light  yellowish  orange;  rind,  smooth, 
thin,  %  inch  thick,  sometimes  slightly  furrowed,  covered 
with  very  short  hairs;  flesh,  light  lemon  colored;  juice 
sacks,  slender;  flavor,  acid,  bitter,  peculiar;  almost  seed- 
less; season,  September-November. 

Tree  a  strong,  upright  grower  with  stiff,  upright 
branches  and  dense  foliage. 


(•g  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Morton.  (Hybrid  771.)  Form,  rounded  or  slightly 
flattened;  size,  large  3  x  3!/4  inches;  calyx,  small;  color, 
light  orange;  rind,  slightly  furrowed,  smooth  or  some- 
what roughened  with  depressed  oil  cells;  sections,  9  or 
10 ;  flesh,  light  orange  yellow,  tender ;  flavor,  acid,  slightly 
bitter;  practically  seedless;  season,  October-November. 

Tree  resembling  Citrus  trifoliata  but  with  larger,  tri- 
foliate leaves.  Very  hardy  and  one  of  the  most  desirable 
hybrids. 

Rusk.  (Hybrid  716.)  Form,  neatly  round;  size, 
small,  1%  x  214  inches;  color,  deep  orange;  catyx,  thin, 
greenish,  large;  rind,  smooth,  bright,  thin,  %  inch  thick; 
oil  cells  small,  globular;  sections,  10;  flesh,  yellow,  tender, 
juicy;  flavor,  strongly  acid  and  somewhat  bitter;  seeds, 
few  in  number;  season,  September-November. 

Foliage,  dense,  trifoliate,  dark  green  and  glossy.  A 
strong  grower  and  prolific. 

Rustic.  (Hybrid  783.)  Form,  round  or  very  slight- 
ly flattened;  size,  medium,  2y2  x  2%  inches;  calyx,  small; 
color,  light  yellow;  rind  of  medium  thickness,  bitter;  oil 
cells,  elevated,  balloon-shaped;  sections,  6  to  12;  flesh, 
greenish  yellow,  tender;  flavor,  acid  bitter;  seeds,  few  to 
many,  or  sometimes  seedless;  season,  September-No- 
vember. 

Tree,  a  spreading,  vigorous  grower,  with  dark  green 
trifoliate  leaves.  Very  hardy.  • 

Savage.  (Hybrid  779.)  Form,  oblate,  frequently 
furrowed ;  size,  medium,  2y2  x  3  inches ;  calyx,  small ; 
color,  light  orange;  rind,  thin,  %  to  3-16  inch,  covered 
with  very  fine  hairs;  oil  cells,  spherical;  sections,  8  to  10; 
flesh,  light  yellow,  tender,  juicy;  flavor,  acid,  rather  bitter; 
seeds  three  or  four  to  each  fruit;  season,  Sept.-Nov. 

This  variety  is  prolific,  vigorous  and  hardy,  with  both 
trifoliate  and  unifoliate  leaves. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
BIGARADE   ORANGE    GROUP— VARIETIES. 


Fig-.  13.     Filer  Bigarade  Orange. 
(Three-fourths  natural  size.) 

Bitter  Sweet.  Form,  oblong,  flattened  at  the  ends; 
size  medium  or  large,  2%  x  2%  inches,  3  x  3%  inches ; 
color  deep  orange;  apex  flattened,  depressed;  base  flat- 
tened, rough,  depressed;  calyx  small,  set  in  a  depression; 
rind  smooth  or  somewhat  uneven,  i/4  inch  thick,  adhering 
rather  loosely;  oil-cells  of  medium  size;  flesh  dark  orange; 
sections  8  to  10;  juice  sacks  of  medium  size,  spindle- 
shaped;  juice  abundant,  cojored;  pulp  melting;  flavor  of 
juice  sweet  or  sweetish,  inner  rind  and  partitions  very 
bitter,  somewhat  musky,  peculiar;  pith  Vi>  to  %  inch 
across ;  seeds  five  to  eight,  wedged,  season,  January-March. 

The  history  of  this  variety  in  Florida  dates  back  to 
the  first  Spanish  explorations  and  settlements.  In  tree 
and  external  appearance  of  the  fruit,  the  Bitter- Sweet  is 
indistinguishable  from  the  sour  orange,  and  the  only 
striking  difference  is  in  the  flavor  of  the  fruit,  the  juice 


70  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

being  sweet  and  pleasantly  flavored,  with  bitter  rind 
and  partitions.  On  careful  comparison  the  seeds  show 
some  slight  differences. 

Filer.  Form  round  or  roundish  oblong;  produced 
singly,  or  in  clusters  of  from  two  to  seven;  size  small, 
11-8x1  3-16  inches,  1  9-16  x  1  1-2  inches ;  color  yellow  to 
reddish  orange ;  apex  rounded  or  flattened,  sometimes  with 


Fig.  14.     Sour  Orange  Fruit. 

the  remains  of  the  pistil  still  attached;  base  rounded; 
calyx  small,  elevated,  stem  slender ;  rind  rather  rough  and 
pitted,  1-16  to  1-8  inch  thick;  oil  cells  small,  flattened, 
frequently  double  convexed;  sections  six  to  eight,  fre- 
quently very  irregular,  occasionally  even  being  arranged 
in  two  rows  at  right  angles  to  each  other  across  the  fruit ; 
flesh  fine  grained,  dark  orange  in  color;  juice  sacks 
small,  spindle-shaped ;  juice  plentiful,  colorless ;  pulp  melt- 
ing; flavor  acid,  rather  musky;  pith  small,  1-8  inch  or 


BIGARADE    ORANGE    GROUP— VARIETIES.  Jl 

lacking;  seeds  small,  3-8  inch  in  length,  wedge-shaped; 
three  to  four  in  number,  many  abortive;  season  Decem- 
ber-February. 

The  original  tree,  and  the  only  one  known  to  the 
author,  stands  in  the  grove  of  Mr.  S.  Filer,  Miami,  Flor- 
ida, and  is  now  probably  twelve  or  fifteen  years  old. 
Nothing  is  known  of  its  origin,  but  I  have  placed  it  with 
this  group,  because  the  flavor  of  the  fruit,  the  habit  of 
tree  growth  and  the  flanged  leaves  resemble  the  Bigarade 
oranges. 

Sour.  Form  rounded  oblate;  size  large,  23-4x3  1-4 
inches;  color  yellow  or  orange  yellow,  sometimes  reddish 
orange  when  fully  matured;  apex  flattened;  base  some- 
what roughened,  slightly  depressed;  the  calyx  set  in  the 
depression ;  rind  smooth,  or  slightly  rough,  3-16  inch  thick ; 
oil  cells  small,  slightly  compressed;  flesh  dark  yellow, 
sections  ten  to  twelve;  juice  sacks  spindle-shaped  and  of 
medium  size;  juice  plentiful,  slightly  colored;  pulp  melt 
ing;  flavor  sour,  when  thoroughly  ripened  rather  agree 
able,  peculiar  and  distinct;  pith  3-4  inch  across;  seeds 
numerous,  many  abortive,  wedge-shaped,  slightly  ridged; 
season  January-March. 

This  variety  is  of  Spanish  introduction,  and  is  prob- 
ably one  of  the  first  fruits  which  the  Spaniards  brought 
to  Florida  shores.  In  many  parts  of  the  State  it  became 
domesticated,  forming  dense  thickets  in  the  hammocks  on 
the  shores  of  rivers  and  lakes.  The  fruit  is  useful  for 
making  marmalades  and  orangeade,  and  the  tree  is  exten- 
sivelv  used  as  a  stock  for  citrus  trees. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES. 

I.    SPANISH   ORANGES. 

Acme  (Beach's  Acme).  Form  oblate;  size  medium  to 
large,  25-8x3  inches;  color  orange;  apex  rounded,  very 
slightly  depressed,  scarred;  base  slightly  creased;  calyx 
small ;  rind  smooth,  thin  and  leathery ;  oil  cells  large,  flush 
with  the  surface ;  sections  eleven,  rather  irregular  in  size ; 
flesh  of  medium  grain,  orange  yellow  in  color ;  juice  sacks 
rather  large;  juice  plentiful,  colored;  pulp  melting,  free 
from  rag ;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended ;  flavor  rich 
and  vinous;  quality  very  good;  pith  small;  seeds  present, 
oval,  pointed,  about  fourteen  in  number,  of  medium  size; 
season  December-January.  Introduced  by  the  late  A.  J. 
Beach. 

Arcadia.  Form  oblate  or  rounded  oblate;  medium  to 
large,  3x3  3-16  inches,  23-4x3  1-4  inches ;  color,  orange ; 
apex  rounded ;  base  slightly  creased,  rounded ;  calyx  small ; 
rind  smooth  or  slightly  pitted,  thin;  oil  cells  flush  with 
the  surface,  or  sometimes  sunken:  sections  about  thirteen 
in  number,  clearly  marked;  flesh  coarse  grained,  orange 
yellow  in  color;  juice  sacks  long,  spindle-shaped;  juice 
abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness 
not  well  blended,  the  acid  being  deficient;  flavor  rather 
insipid;  quality  fair;  pith  large;  seeds  present,  oval, 
pointed  or  oblong,  twenty-four  in  number,  1-2  x  3-8  inch; 
season  December-January. 

Arcadia  is  supposed  to  have  originated  as  a  seedling 
at  Arcadia,  Florida,  and  was  introduced  into  cultiva- 
tion bv  the  Rev.  William  Watkin  Hicks. 


74  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Boone  ( Boone- s  Early).  Form  rounded;  size  med- 
ium, 2  7-8  x  3  1-16  inches,  2  9-16  x  3  inches;  color  deep  yel- 
low; apex  rounded,  scarred,  slightly  depressed;  base  flat- 
tened; calyx  rather  large,  segments  pointed;  rind  smooth, 
1-8  to  3-16  inch  thick ;  oil  cells  flush  with  the  surface ;  sec- 
tions eleven;  flesh  yellowish  orange,  medium  coarse;  juice 
sacks  spindle-shaped,  elongated  or  rather  short;  juice 
abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness 
fairly  good,  but  the  acid  not  strongly  developed,  flavor 
very  good;  pith  medium  size,  1-2  inch  across;  seeds  pres- 
ent, short,  pointed,  of  medium  size,  twenty-five  in  num- 
ber; season  October  to  middle  of  November  Should  be 
shipped  as  soon  as  colored,  as  it  is  likely  to  drop. 

This  variety  is  said  to  have  been  originated  by  "Old 
Man  Giddings/'  three  or  four  miles  south  of  Webster. 
The  seed  from  which  the  trees  came  were  given  him  by  a 
man  who  passed  that  way  about  thirty  years  ago.  The 
variety,  according  to  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart,  was  propagated  and 
sold  by  David  Collins,  of  Webster,  for  many  years  under 
the  name  of  "The  Giddings."  Under  the  name  "Boone,"  it 
was  brought  to  notice  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Boone,  of  Orlando,  in 
the  fall  of  1889. 

Dummitt.  Form  rounded  or  slightly  oblate;  size 
large,  31-8  x  3 1-16  inches ;  color  light  orange ;  apex 
rounded;  base  slightly  creased;  calyx  of  medium  size,  seg- 
ments pointed;  rind  slightly  pitted,  thin;  oil  cells  flush 
with  the  surface  or  somewhat  sunken;  sections  eleven  in 
number,  rather  regular  in  size ;  flesh  yellow,  coarse-grained ; 
juice  sacks  of  medium  size,  spindle-shaped ;  pulp  melting ; 
acidity  and  sweetness  fairly  well  blended;  flavor  fairly 
good;  quality  medium;  pith  small,  1-4  to  1-2  inch;  seeds 
about  fourteen  in  number,  large,  oblong,  creased  or  ridged ; 
season  December-February. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  75 

In  a  letter  from  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart,  of  Hawk's  Park,  Fla., 
dated  July  12,  1903,  he  says:  "This  variety  was  budded 
from  a  wild  sweet  tree  into  the  Captain  Dummitt  grove 
between  Mosquito  Lagoon  and  Indian  River.  These  wild 
sweet  trees  were  found  in  Turnbull  Hammock  back  of 
Hawk's  Park,  by  John  D.  Sheldon  in  1832.  He  trans- 
planted 600  of  them  to  the  Sheldon  place,  now  known  as 
the  Packwood  place,  on  the  Hillsborough  River,  now 
known  as  Indian  River  North.  Most  of  the  Indian  River 
fruit  came  from  these  trees." 

Early  Oblong  (St.  Michael's  Egg).  Form  oblong 
rounded;  size  medium  to  large;  3x3  inches;  color  yellow 
to  orange ;  apex  rounded,  sloping  abruptly,  slightly  de- 
pressed; base  flattened,  slightly  shouldered,  smooth  or 
somewhat  creased;  calyx  small,  elevated;  rind  smooth, 
1-8  to  3-16  inch  thick;  oil  cells  flush  with  the  surface  or 
slightly  elevated;  sections  eleven  to  thirteen;  flesh  yellow 
to  orange  yellow,  of  medium  grain;  juice  sacks  spindle- 
shaped,  broad  at  the  base;  juice  plentiful,  colored;  pulp 
melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  quite  well  combined;  flavor 
sweet,  good;  pith  compact,  1-2  inch  across;  seeds  present, 
twenty-two  in  number,  oval,  pointed  or  rounded,  plump, 
rather  large;  season  September-October. 

A  variety  originally  from  the  May's  Grove,  Orange 
Mills,  Florida,  and  apparently  identical  with  the  St.  Mi- 
chael's Egg  from  Rivers'  English  Nurseries. 

Enterprise  (Enterprise  Seedless).  Form  roundish, 
oblong;  size  large,  215-16  x  31-4  inches;  color  orange; 
apex  slightly  depressed;  base  creased,  shouldered;  calyx 
depressed;  rind  pitted,  1-8  inch  or  more  in  thickness;  oil 
cells  large;  sections  twelve,  rather  irregular  in  size;  flesh 
coarse,  orange  in  color ;  juice  sacks  large,  spindle-shaped ; 
juice  abundant,  colored ;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  com- 


70 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


bined;  flavor  rich,  quality  very  good;  pith  rather  open, 
1-2  inch  across;  seeds  present,  six  in  number,  large,  oval, 
pointed;  season  October-November. 

Said  to  have  come  from  the  old  Dummitt  grove  origi- 
nally. Its  seedlessness  was  discovered  by  one  of  the 
Starkes,  of  Glenwood,  Fla.  The  variety  was  named  after 
the  town  of  Enterprise,  Fla. 

Foster.  Form 
rounded,  oblate ;  size 
medium  to  large, 
25-8x2  7-8  inches, 
25-8x3  inches; 
color  orange;  apex 
rounded  and  slight- 
ly depressed ;  base 
rounded,  smooth ; 
calyx  rather  large, 
3-8  inch  across 
1-8  inch  thick;  oil 
cells  slightly  ele- 
vated or  flush  with 
the  surface ;  sections 
twelve,  well  defined ; 
flesh  rather  coarse, 


Photo   6y  Ensminger. 

Fig.  15.    A  Seedling  Sweet  Orange  Tree  in  Florida. 
It  carried  a  crop  of  12, 000  fruits  when  photographed. 


orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  large;  juice  abundant,  col- 
ored; pulp  melting;  acid  well  defined;  flavor  rich,  quality 
excellent;  pith  1-2  inch  across,  solid;  seeds  present,  oval, 
pointed,  large,  thirteen  in  number;  season  October- 
November. 

According  to  Reasoner  the  original  tree  of  this  variety 
was  grown  from  seed  obtained  from  Havana  about  1847, 
and  in  1887  it  was  still  standing  in  the  grove  of  Col.  C. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES—  VARIETIES.  77 

H.  Foster,  Manatee,  Fla.     It  was  introduced  by  Reasoner 
Bros.  Oneco,  Fla.,  about  1883. 

Hick  (Hick's  Sweet  Seville).  Form  rounded  oblate; 
size  medium,  27-8x3  inches;  color  orange,  bright;  apex 
rounded,  scarred;  base  smooth;  calyx  small;  rind  smooth 
or  with  the  large  conspicuous  oil  cells  projecting  a  little 
above  the  surface,  1-8  inch  or  slightly  more  in  thickness ; 
sections  regular,  ten  in  number ;  flesh  fairly  coarse  grained, 
yellowish  orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  medium  to  large, 
spindle-shaped ;  juice  abundant,  colored ;  acidity  and  sweet- 
ness not  very  well  combined,  scarcely  enough  acid;  flavor 
agreeable  but  lacking  in  character;  pith  compact,  3-8  inch 
across;  seeds  present,  oblong,  ridged,  large,  5-8  x  1-4  inch, 
ten  in  number;  season  early. 

Hick  is  supposed  to  be  a  seedling  variety,  originated 
at  Arcadia,  Florida. 

Homosassa.  Form  round  or  slightly  oblate ;  size  med- 
ium to  large,  23-4x2  1-16  inches,  3x3  7-16  inches ;  color 
yellow  or  orange  yellow;  apex  rounded,  slightly  depressed 
and  scarred;  base  round  or  somewhat  flat,  sometimes 
slightly  creased;  calyx  small,  slightly  pointed;  rind  1-8 
inch  thick,  tough  smooth;  oil  cells  slightly  sunken  or 
flush  with  the  surface;  sections  large,  eleven  in  number, 
fairly  regular;  flesh  coarse  grained,  yellow;  juice  sacks 
large,  spindle-shaped ;  pulp  melting ;  remarkably  free  from 
rag;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  sprightly, 
rich  and  vinous ;  quality  excellent ;  pitch  9-16  inch  across, 
solid;  seeds  present,  twenty  to  twenty-four  in  number, 
plump,  beaked  or  pointed,  large,  3-4  x  3-8  inch;  season 
December-February. 

This  variety  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  Florida  seedlings. 
According  to  Reasoner  it  originated  in  the  grove  of  Hon. 
Mr.  Yulee  at  Homosassa,  Fla. 


78  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Indian  River.  Form  rounded;  size  medium  to  large, 
3x3  1-16  inches ;  color  orange,  bright ;  apex  rounded, 
smooth ;  base  rounded ;  rind  1-8  inch  thick,  smooth ;  oil  cells 
flush  with  the  surface  or  slightly  indented;  sections  well 
defined,  fairly  regular,  ten  in  number;  flesh  fine  grained, 
orange  yellow  in  color;  juice  sacks  small;  juice  abundant, 
colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended; 
flavor  rich,  excellent  and  sprightly;  pith  solid,  1-2  inch 
across ;  seeds  present,  seventeen  to  twenty  in  number,  long, 
oval,  pointed;  season  December-February. 

A  native  seedling  variety,  originated  on  the  Indian 
River,  Fla.,  hence  its  name.  Its  origin  is  probably  the 
same  as  that  given  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart  for  the  Dummitt 
orange. 

Madam  Vinous.  Form  roundish-oblate;  size  small, 
medium  or  large,  211-16  x  27-8  inches,  23-4  x  33-16 
inches;  color  orange;  apex  rounded  or  slightly  depressed: 
base  rounded,  flat,  sometimes  creased;  calyx  small,  seg- 
ments pointed;  rind  fairly  smooth,  3-16  inch  thick;  oil 
cells  flush  with  the  surface  or  slightly  sunken,  small ;  sec- 
tions eleven  in  number ;  flesh  coarse  grained,  color  orange ; 
juice  sacks  large,  broad  and  elongated;  juice  plentiful 
colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  normal,  sweetness  well 
combined  with  the  acid;  flavor  rich  and  good;  pith  1-2 
inch  across,  solid;  seeds  present,  roundish,  flattened, 
plump  and  pointed,  1-2  x  3-8  inch;  season  December-Jan- 
uary. 

An  Indian  River  seedling  originated  by  Major  Ma- 
gruder,  of  Rockledge,  and  introduced  about  1882 

Magnum  Bonum.  Form  oblate;  size  large,  2  3-4  x 
3  1-4  inches ;  color  orange  yellow ;  apex  indented,  scarred ; 
base  rounded,  quite  smooth;  calyx  rather  large,  the  seg- 
ments blunt  pointed,  rind  quite  pitted,  leathery,  1-8  inch 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  79 

thick;  oil  cells  small,  flush  with  the  surface  or  slightly 
sunken;  sections  clearly  defined,  thirteen  in  number;  flesh 
medium  grained,  orange;  juice  sacks  spindle-shaped,  of 
medium  size;  juice  abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting; 
acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  sweet,  rich; 
quality  excellent;  pith  1-2  to  3-4  inch  across;  seeds  pres- 
ent, thirteen  in  number,  large,  plump,  wedge-shaped;  sea- 
son December  to  middle  of  February. 

According  to  Moore,  the  Magnum  Bonum  orange  prob- 
ably originated  at  Homosassa,  Fla. 

May  (Dr.  May's  Best).  Form  rounded;  size  medium 
to  large,  3x3  1-16  inches ;  color  rather  light  yellow  to 
orange;  apex  rounded;  base  rounded,  somewhat  flat- 
tened; calyx  small,  pointed;  rind  smooth,  1-8  inch 
thick,  tough  and  leathery;  oil  cells  flush  with  the 
surface;  sections  eleven  in  number,  well  defined, 
regular  in  size;  flesh  rather  coarse  grained,  color 
orange;  juice  sacks  large,  spindle-shaped;  juice  abun- 
dant, colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  fairly 
well  blended,  but  not  strong  in  character ;  flavor  very  good ; 
pith  small;  seeds  present,  six  or  more  in  number,  some 
abortive,  plump,  oval,  pointed,  about  5-8  x  3-8  inch;  sea- 
son December- January. 

Originated  in  the  grove  of  Dr.  May  at  Orange  Mills, 
Florida. 

Nonpareil.  Form  rounded  oblate ;  size  medium  to  large, 
25-8  x  3,  31-16  x  31-2  inches;  color  yellow  to  orange; 
apex  rounded,  somewhat  flat,  slightly  depressed  just  at 
the  tip ;  base  rounded,  somewhat  depressed,  creased ;  calyx 
of  medium  size,  segments  pointed;  rind  rather  pitted,  1-8 
to  3-16  inch  thick;  oil  cells  small,  sunken  or  flush;  sections 
ten,  regular,  well  defined;  flesh  of  medium  grain,  deep 
yellow  in  color;  juice  sacks  of  medium  size,  spindle-shaped ; 


80  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor 
rich,  vinous ;  quality  excellent ;  pith  small,  3-8  inch  across ; 
seeds  present,  eleven  to  fifteen  in  number,  oval,  pointed, 
large,  plump,  about  5-8  x  3-8  inch;  season  December-Jan- 
uary. 

Nonpareil  originated  as  a  Florida  seedling  on  the  St. 
Johns  River,  Fla.,  and  was  introduced  by  the  late  A.  J. 
Bidwell. 

Old  Vini  (Beach's  No.  Jh  Buena  Vista).  Form  oblate 
or  oblate  rounded;  size  medium  to  large,  27-8  x  215-16 
inches,  27-8x2  1-4  inches ;  color  yellow  to  orange ;  apex 
rounded,  slightly  depressed ;  base  smooth ;  calyx  of  medium 
size,  with  a  rather  stout  stem;  rind  smooth,  1-8  inch  thick, 
tough  and  leathery;  oil  cells  flush  with  the  surface,  or 
very  slightly  depressed;  sections  clearly  defined,  fairly 
regular,  eleven  in  number;  flesh  coarse,  orange  yellow  in 
color;  juice  sacks  large;  juice  abundant,  colored;  pulp 
melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  very 
good  and  of  good  character;  pith  solid,  1-2  inch  across; 
seeds  present,  sixteen  in  number,  oval,  pointed  at  both 
ends,  plump,  1-2  x  3-8  inch;  season  December-February. 

A  seedling  variety,  originated  by  the  late  Col.  F.  L 
Dancy,  of  Orange  Mills,  Fla. 

Osceola.  Form  rather  oblate  or  rounded ;  size  large, 
3x3  1-16  inches ;  color  orange,  bright ;  stems  stout ;  apex 
with  a  small  scar,  set  in  a  slight  depression;  base  slightly 
shouldered  and  roughened ;  calyx  of  medium  size ;  segments 
short,  pointed;  rind  fairly  smooth,  3-16  inch  thick;  oil 
cells  rather  sunken;  sections  twelve,  variable  in  size, 
clearly  defined;  flesh  coarse  grained,  orange  in  color; 
juice  sacks  large,  elongated;  juice  plentiful;  pulp  rather 
melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended  and  of  good 
character;  quality  very  good;  pith  small,  3-8  inch  across; 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  £j 

seeds  present,  six  to  ten  in  number,  oval,  pointed,  plump, 
large;  season  December  and  January. 

The  orignal  tree  was  a  seedling  raised  by  L.  H.  Van- 
Pelt,  Mandarin,  Florida. 

Parson  Brown.  Form  rounded,  somewhat  oblong; 
medium  to  large,  2  13-16  x  3  inches,  3  3-16  x  3  5-16  inches; 
color  yellow  orange  to  yellow;  apex  rounded;  base 
rounded;  calyx  small;  rind  smooth,  bright,  1-8  to  3-16  inch 
thick;  oil  cells  flush  with  the  surface;  sections  ten,  regu- 
lar, well  defined;  flesh  rather  coarse  grained,  yellow;  juice 
sacks  spindle-shaped,  medium  to  large;  juice  abundant, 
colored ;  pulp  melting ;  acidity  and  sweetness  not  well 
blended  unless  picked  quite  early;  pith  small;  seeds  small, 
ten  to  nineteen  in  number,  oval,  flattened,  pointed,  some- 
times rectangular,  large,  9-16  x  3-8  inch;  season  about 
October-November. 

The  Parson  Brown  orange,  according  to  Mr.  F.  D. 
Waite,  was  introduced  by  Capt.  J.  L.  Carney,  of  Lake 
Weir,  Fla.,  about  1878  and  originated  at  Webster,  Fla.,  in 
the  seedling  grove  of  Parson  Brown. 

Stark  (Stark's  Favorite).  Form  round  or  roundish- 
oblate  ;  size  small  to  medium,  21-2x2  7-8  inches,  2  9-16  x 
2  7-8  inches;  color  light  orange;  apex  rounded;  base 
rounded ;  calyx  small,  segments  pointed ;  rind  smooth,  silky, 
thin  oil  cells  medium  size,  flush  with  the  surface;  sec- 
tions rather  irregular  in  size,  ten  in  number;  flesh  rather 
fine  grained,  yellow;  juice  sacks  of  medium  size;  juice 
plentiful,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness 
well  blended,  the  sweetness  predominating  slightly ;  flavor 
rich  and  good;  quality  very  good;  pith  compact,  3-8  to  1-2 
inch  across;  seeds  present,  oval,  pointed,  plump,  eighteen 
in  number,  medium  to  large,  about  5-8  x  3-8  inch;  season 
December-February. 


82  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

This  variety  originated  as  a  native  Florida  seedling. 

Whitaker.  Form  slightly  oblate;  size  medium,  2  3-8 
x  27-8  inches;  color  yellowish  orange;  apex  rounded, 
smooth;  base  slightly  roughened;  calyx  of  medium  size; 
rind  thin,  smooth,  tough,  closely  attached;  oil  cells  of  med- 
ium size,  somewhat  elevated;  sections  well  defined,  small, 
about  twelve  in  number;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweet- 
ness not  very  well  combined;  flavor  slightly  flat,  owing  to 
the  specimen  being  a  little  over  ripe;  seeds  present,  few 
in  number,  large,  oval,  pointed;  season  December- 
February. 

Introduced  by  Reasoner  Bros.,  Oneco,  Fla.,  about 
1884. 

II.    MEDITERRANEAN    ORANGES. 

.  Bessie.  Form  round  or  slightly  oblate ;  size  small  to 
medium,  25-8x2  3-4  inches ;  color  orange ;  apex  rounded, 
slightly  scarred;  base  smooth  or  somewhat  roughened; 
calyx  small;  rind  smooth,  thin,  tough,  1-4  inch  thick, 
closely  attached;  oil  cells  rather  depressed;  sections  small, 
well  defined,  ten  in  number;  juice  abundant,  acidity  and 
sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous;  quality  ex- 
cellent; seeds  present,  about  fourteen  in  number;  season 
March- April. 

Originated  by  the  late  Dudley  W.  Adams,  of  Tan- 
gerine, Fla.,  and  named  after  his  sister-in-law,  Miss  Bessie 
Hustis. 

Centennial.  Form  round ;  size  small  to  medium,  2  1-2 
x  215-16  inches;  color  orange;  apex  scarred,  set  in  a 
slight  depression;  base  streaked  or  slightly  ridged, 
rounded;  calyx  small;  rind  smooth,  thin,  1-8  inch  or  less; 
oil  cells  pitted  or  flush  with  the  surface;  sections  well 
defined,  fairly  regular,  eleven  in  number;  flesh  fine  grained, 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  §3 

orange  yellow;  juice  sacks  small,  spindle-shaped ;  juice 
abundant,  colorless;  pulp  melting,  free  from  rag;  acidity 
and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  rich  and  vinous;  quality 
excellent;  pith  small;  seeds  present,  about  ten  in  number, 
long  and  pointed  or  oval,  plump,  5-8  x  3-8  inch;  season 
November-December. 

This  variety  was  brought  to  notice  by  the  late  E.  H, 
Hart  about  1876.  Though  the  fruit  ripens  early,  it  can  be 
held  until  quite  late,  and  on  the  whole  it  is  a  very  desira- 
ble variety.  Introduced  by  Mr.  E.  S.  Hubbard,  of  Federal 
Point,  Florida. 

Circassian.  Form  rounded  or  depressed ;  size  medium 
to  large,  23-4x3  inches,  3x3  3-16  inches ;  color  light  yel- 
low; apex  rounded;  base  rounded,  smooth;  calyx  small, 
the  lobes  short  and  blunt;  rind  thin,  1-8  inch  thick,  quite 
smooth;  oil  cells  slightly  elevated,  numerous  and  of  good 
size;  sections  clearly  marked,  quite  regular,  ten  to  fifteen 
in  number;  flesh  fine  grained,  yellow;  juice  sacks  long, 
spindle-shaped,  slender ;  juice  plentiful,  colored ;  pulp  melt- 
ing; acidity  and  sweetness  normal  and  well  blended;  flavor 
very  good;  pith  solid,  3-4  inch  across;  seeds  present,  ob- 
long or  oval,  pointed,  ten  to  twenty-one  in  number,  5-8  x 
3-8  inch;  season  December  to  February. 

Circassian  is  a  foreign  introduction  through  the  Riv- 
ers Nurseries. 

Du  Roi.  Form  oblong;  size  medium  to  large,  2  7-8  x 
3  inches,  3  3-16  x  3  1-16  inches ;  color  yellow,  deep  orange 
or  reddish  when  fully  matured;  apex  rounded;  base 
creased,  flat;  calyx  of  good  size,  segments  pointed;  rind 
creased  or  almost  ribbed,  rough,  1-8  to  3-16  inch  thick;  oil 
cells  flush  with  the  surface  or  sometimes  rather  sunken; 
sections  eleven,  small,  well  defined ;  flesh  fine  grained,  yel- 
lowish orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  long,  spindle-shaped; 


84 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


juice  abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweet- 
ness well  blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous;  quality  excellent; 
pith  small;  seeds  present,  about  fourteen  in  number,  size 
large,  5-8  x  5-16  inch,  oval  pointed  or  oblong  wedged ;  sea- 
son February  and  March. 

Probably  introduced  through  Rivers'  Nurseries. 


Fig.   16.     Jaffa  Oranges. 

Exquisite.  Form  round  or  oblate;  2  7-8  x  2  7-8  inches, 
23-4x3  1-16  inches ;  color  orange  yellow ;  apex  rounded ; 
base  rounded,  smooth;  calyx  very  small;  rind  smooth, 
tough,  leathery,  1-8  inch  thick ;  oil  cells  flush  with  the  sur- 
face or  slightly  elevated;  sections  well  defined,  rather  ir- 
regular in  size,  thirteen  in  number;  flesh  rather  coarse 
grained,  orange  color;  juice  abundant;  pulp  not  melting, 
containing  a  little  too  much  rag;  acidity  and  sweetness 
well  blended;  flavor  very  good;  pith  solid,  small,  1-4  to 
1-2  inch  across;  seeds  present,  oval,  pointed,  ridged,  5-8  x 
3-8  inch,  about  twenty-eight  in  number;  season  December 
January-February. 

Reasoner,  in  Bui.  No.  1,  Div.  Pomology,  U.  S.  D.  A., 
says  that  this  variety  was  imported  by  General  Sanford. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES. 


85 


Everbearing.  Form  oblong,  tapering  to  the  stem ;  size 
small  to  medium,  about  2  3-4  x  2  1-2  inches ;  color  orange 
yellow ;  apex  rounded ;  base  rather  rough ;  calyx  depressed ; 
rind  pitted,  3-16  inch  thick;  oil  cells  small;  sections  ten, 
small;  flesh  coarse  grained,  yellow;  juice  sacks  rather 
broad  and  short;  juice  plentiful;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and 
sweetness  fairly  well  blended,  frequently  with  the  acid 
predominating;  flavor  quite  good;  quality  good;  pith  small, 
1-4  inch  across;  seeds  present,  ten  in  number,  plurnp,  oval, 
pointed,  3-8  x  1-4  inch;  season  from  October  to  June. 

Origin  not  known,  but  probably  imported  into  Amer 
ica. 


Pig.  17.     Ever-bearing  Orange  Tree. 

Jaffa.  Form  rounded  oblate  or  occasionally  very 
slightly  rounded  oblong;  size  medium  to  large,  23-4  x 
3  1-16  inches.  3x3  inches ;  color  orange  yellow  to  orange 


86  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

red;  apex  rounded,  smooth;  base  rounded;  calyx  small, 
pointed;  rind  smooth,  leathery,  1-8  inch  thick;  oil  cells  of 
medium  size,  flattened ;  sections  eleven,  well  defined,  fairly 
regular;  flesh  yellow  in  color,  fine  grained;  juice  sacks 
narrow,  elongated;  juice  abundant,  colored;  pulp  melt- 
ing; acidity  and  sweetness  normal  and  well  blended; 
flavor  rich;  quality  excellent;  pith  small;  seeds  present, 
about  nine  in  number,  plano-convex,  short,  rounded, 
plump,  1-2  x  1-4  inch;  season  December-February. 

Imported  by  the  late  General  Sanford  from  Palestine 
about  1883. 

Joppa  (Joppa  Late).  Form  oblong,  shouldered,  larg- 
est below  the  median  line,  tapering  towards  the  calyx; 
size  medium,  27-8  x  213-16  inches;  color  orange;  apex 
rounded,  smooth;  base  slightly  roughened  and  creased; 
calyx  3  inches  across;  rind  somewhat  rough;  oil  cells 
slightly  indented  in  some  cases,  but  usually  flush  with  the 
surface;  thickness,  3-16  inch;  sections  ten  in  number,  well 
defined ;  flesh  fine  grained,  orange  in  color ;  juice  sacks 
small,  pointed ;  juice  plentiful,  colored ;  pulp  melting ; 
acidity  and  sweetness  normal;  flavor  good,  quality  fair; 
pith  small,  1-4  to  3-8  inch  in  diameter;  seeds  few,  small, 
plump,  roundish ;  season  January-March. 

Originated  at  San  Gabriel,  Gal.,  by  Mr.  A.  B.  Ghap- 
man,  from  seed  secured  from  Joppa,  Palestine. 

Majorca.  Form  rounded  or  slightly  oblate ;  size  small 
to  medium,  25-8x2  7-8  inches,  27-8x3  1-16  inches;  color 
orange;  apex  rounded;  base  rounded,  smooth;  calyx  small; 
rind  smooth,  thin,  tough,  1-8  inch  thick;  oil  cells  small, 
flush  with  the  surface;  sections  small,  regular,  thirteen 
in  number;  flesh  fine  grained,  orange  colored,  composed 
of  slender,  spindle-shaped  juice  sacks;  juice  abundant, 
colored ;  pulp  melting ;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended ; 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  §7 

flavor  sprightly,  rich  and  vinous;  pith  small,  3-8  inch 
across,  compact;  seeds  present,  few,  about  five  or  six, 
small,  plump,  oval;  season  February-March. 

Imported  by  the  late  General  Sanford.  The  variety 
takes  its  name  from  the  island  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 

Maltese  Oval.  Form  oblong  or  rounded  oblong ;  size 
medium  to  large,  25-8x2  7-8  inches ;  3  5-16  x  3  5-16  inches ; 
color  yellow  or  orange  yellow ;  apex  rounded ;  base  flat, 
shouldered,  smooth;  calyx  small,  segments  pointed;  rind 
smooth,  1-8  to  1-4  inch  thick;  oil  cells  large  and  conspic- 
uous; sections  well  defined,  eleven  to  thirteen  in  number; 
flesh  yellow,  coarse  grained;  juice  sacks  large,  spindle- 
shaped;  juice  plentiful,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity 
and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  sweet,  vinous,  and  of 
excellent  quality;  pith  small,  about  7-16  inch  across,  rather 
open;  seeds  present,  flattened,  oval,  pointed,  large,  9-16  x 
3-8  inch,  six  to  thirteen  in  number;  season  March-April. 

Introduced  into  America  from  the  Mediterranean  by 
General  Sanford. 

Marquis.  Form  slightly  oblate;  size  medium,  2  5-8 
x  2  3-8  inches ;  color  orange,  rather  light ;  apex  rounded ; 
base  rounded,  smooth;  calyx  small;  rind  thin,  smooth, 
closely  attached;  oil  cells  small,  numerous;  sections  well 
defined,  variable  in  size,  about  eleven  in  number;  juice 
abundant,  colored;  flesh  coarse  grained,  orange  in  color; 
acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  sweet  and  rich, 
quality  very  good;  seeds  present,  about  four  in  number, 
medium  size;  season  December-February. 

Imported  from  the  Island  of  Malta  by  Colonel  Church, 
of  Orlando. 

Paper  Rind.  (Paper  Rind  St.  Michael).  Form  oblong; 
size  medium  to  large,  23-4x2  3-4  inches,  3x2  15-16  inches; 


88  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

color  orange;  apex  rounded;  base  rounded,  shouldered; 
calyx  small;  rind  slightly  pitted,  1-8  to  3-16  inch  thick; 
oil  cells  depressed;  sections  ten,  partitions  thin;  flesh 
coarse  grained,  orange  colored;  juice  sacks  small;  juice 
plentiful,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness 
well  blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous,  quality  excellent;  pith 
small,  1-4  to  1-2  inch  across;  seeds  present,  oblong  or  oval, 
pointed,  six  in  number,  large  or  medium ;  season  February- 
March. 

Imported  from  the  Island  of  St.  Michael  into  Califor- 
nia and  thence  into  all  the  American  citrus  districts. 

Pineapple.  Form  somewhat  variable,  varying  from 
nearly  round  to  slightly  oblate,  occasional  specimens  being 
quite  compressed ;  size  medium  to  large,  21-2  x  2  3-4 
inches,  2  15-16  x  3  1-4  inches;  color  deep  orange,  full  ripe 
well  colored  specimens  show  a  reddish  tinge;  apex 
rounded  or  very  slightly  depressed  and  scarred;  base 
rounded,  very  smooth;  calyx  small,  segments  rounded, 
blunt;  rind  smooth,  bright,  glossy  and  satiny,  1-8  inch 
thick;  oil  cells  small,  quite  conspicuous,  flush  with  the! 
surface  or  slightly  elevated;  sections  eleven,  slightly  ir- 
regular; flesh  of  medium  grain,  orange  yellow;  juice  sacks 
pointed,  spindle-shaped,  small;  juice  abundant,  yellowish 
in  color;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well 
blended;  flavor  excellent,  rich,  vinous,  sprightly;  pith 
solid,  1-4  to  1-2  inch;  seeds  present,  thirteen  to  twenty- 
three  in  number,  flattened,  plump,  pointed,  large,  11-16 
x  5-16  inch;  season  January  and  February,  although  it 
may  sometimes  be  held  later. 

Introduced  by  Bishop  and  Hoyt,  of  Citra,  Fla.  By 
some  it  is  said  to  have  originated  in  a  small  clump,  of 
seedlings  near  Citra,  while  others  say  it  came  from  Lake 
Harris. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES,  §9 

Prata  (Silver)  Form  rounded;  size  medium  to  large, 
3  x  31-8  inches;  color  light  orange;  apex  rounded;  base 
rounded,  smooth;  rind  smooth,  tough  and  leathery,  adher- 
ing closely  to  the  pulp;  oil  cells  small;  sections  well  de- 
fined, about  eleven  in  number;  flesh  rather  coarse  grained, 
orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  medium  size,  spindle-shaped; 
juice  abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweet- 
ness well  combined;  flavor  rich  and  good;  quality  very 
fair;  pith  1-2  inch  across;  seeds  about  thirty  in  number, 
plump,  oval,  large;  season  December-February. 

Imported  into  Florida  through  the  Rivers  Nurseries. 

Star  Calyx.  Form  round  or  rounded  oblate;  size  med- 
ium to  large,  2  9-16  x  3  inches,  3x31-8  inches ;  color 
orange  or  orange  yellow ;  apex  flattened ;  base  rounded, 
smooth;  calyx  large,  conspicuous,  usually  five-pointed,  1-2 
inch  across;  rind  smooth,  1-8  to  3-16  inch  thick;  oil  cells' 
flush  with  the  surface  or  slightly  elevated;  sections  fairly 
regular,  thirteen  in  number;  flesh  rather  coarse  grained, 
orange  colored;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  balanced; 
flavor  and  quality  excellent;  pith  1-2  inch  across;  seeds 
present,  oval,  plump,  large,  about  eighteen  in  number; 
season  December- January-February. 

Said  to  have  been  imported  from  the  nurseries  of 
Thomas  Rivers,  England. 

Hart  (Hart's  Late,  Hart's  Tardiff).  Form  round  or 
sometimes  slightly  oval ;  size  medium  to  large,  3  1-8  x  3  1-8 
inches;  color  deep  golden  orange;  apex  rounded,  slightly 
flattened,  scarred,  base  smooth,  rounded;  calyx  small, 
sharp  pointed;  rind  thin,  smooth,  tough;  sections  clearly 
marked,  nine  or  more  in  number;  flesh  orange  in  color, 
of  medium  grain ;  juice  sacks  spindle-shaped,  of  medium 
size;  juice  abundant,  colored;  acidity  and  sweetness  well 
combined;  pulp  melting;  flavor  rich,  sprightly  and  vinous; 


90  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

quality  excellent;  seeds  present,  few,  about  six  in  number, 
large,  oval,  plump;  season  late  March  to  June. 

Introduced  by  the  late  E.  H.  Hart,  of  Federal  Point, 
Fla.  It  came  originally  from  the  Rivers'  Nurseries  and 
was  imported  into  America  by  Mr.  S.  B.  Parsons,  of 
Flushing,  Long  Island,  about  1870.  Said  by  some  writers 
to  be  the  same  as  Valencia  Late. 

White.  Form  round  or  slightly  oblate;  medium  to 
large,  25-8x3  inches,  2  13-16  x  3  1-16  inches ;  color  light 
yellow;  apex  rounded,  scarred;  base  rounded,  smooth; 
calyx  small;  rind  smooth,  thin,  1-8  inch  or  slightly  less; 
oil  cells  flush  with  the  surface;  sections  thirteen,  small, 
fairly  regular;  flesh  fine  grained,  yellow  in  color;  juice 
sacks  small,  spindle-shaped ;  juice  abundant,  colored ; 
pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  combined  in  good  pro- 
portions; flavor  rich,  vinous  and  of  excellent  quality; 
pith  small,  close;  seeds  present,  twenty  to  twenty-seven 
in  number,  oval  and  pointed,  or  wedge-shaped  and  oblong, 
5-8  x  3-8  inch,  plump ;  season  December-February. 

Introduced  from  the  Rivers'  Nurseries. 

III.  BLOOD  ORANGES. 

Maltese.  Form  round,  or  oblong  rounded;  size 
medium  to  large  3x3  inches;  color  deep  orange;  apex 
slightly  indented;  base  creased,  calyx  set  in  a  slight 
depression;  stem  of  medium  size;  rind  smooth,  medium 
thick;  oil  cells  elevated  or  indented,  balloon  shaped, 
large;  flesh  dark  orange,  streaked  with  red,  sometimes 
varying  to  blood  red,  fine  grained;  sections  well  defined, 
eleven  in  number;  juice  sacks  spindle-shaped,  small  or 
medium;  juice  yellowish  or  yellowish  red;  flavor  sweet 
well  blended  with  acid;  quality  very  good;  pith  small, 
seeds  four  to  eight,  small  roundish. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES. 


91 


An  orange  of  very  good  quality  with  small,  bright 
characteristic  foliage.  The  blood  marking  in  the  fruit 
shows  only  on  old  trees  and  then  not  until  late  in  the 
season,  sometimes  not  at  all.  Its  greatest  failing  lies  in 
its  not  being  sufficiently  prolific.  Introduced  from  South- 
ern Europe. 

Ruby  Form  round  or  slightly  oblong ;  small  to  large, 
23-4  x  3  1-4  inches,  21-2x2  3-4  inches;  color  deep  yellow 


Fig.    18.      Ruby   Oranges. 

or  orange,  reddish  when  fully  matured;  apex  rounded, 
scarred,  sometimes  navel  marked;  base  rounded,  smooth; 
calyx  small,  lobes  short  and  blunt;  rind  smooth,  shiny, 
1-8  inch  thick;  oil  cells  small,  almost  globular;  sections 
small,  regular,  twelve  in  number ;  flesh  fine  grained,  yel- 
low early  in  the  season,  streaked  with  red  in  mid-season, 
and  blood-red  when  fully  ripe;  juice  sacks  small;  juice 
plentiful,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness 
well  blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous;  quality  excellent;  pith 
small,  compact,  5-16  inch  across ;  seeds  present,  plum]) 


92  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

oval,  pointed,  of  medium  size,  7-16  inch  in  length,  eleven 
in  number;  season  February  and  March. 

An  imported  variety,  probably  brought  from  some  one 
of  the  Mediterranean  districts.  It  is  a  variety  with  no  su- 
perior and  few  equals.  Imported  by  General  Sanford. 

Sanford  Blood  (Stanford's  Sweet  Blood).  Form 
rounded  oblate ;  size  medium,  23-4x3  1-1G  inches ;  color  at 
first  lemon  yellow,  gradually  deepening  to  reddish;  apex 
rounded,  slightly  scarred;  base  rounded,  smooth;  calyx  of 
medium  size;  rind  smooth,  bright,  glossy,  thin  and  leath- 
ery; oil  cells  small,  numerous,  flush  with  the  surface; 
sections  eleven  in  number,  regular  in  size,  orange  in  color 
at  first  becoming  streaked  with  blood  markings  and  finally 
blood  colored  about  April;  juice  sacks  slender,  spindle- 
shaped;  juice  abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting  entirely; 
acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous; 
pith  1-2  inch  across,  solid;  seeds  present,  about  fourteen 
in  number,  plump,  oval,  pointed,  smooth,  large;  season 
January  to  March. 
Imported  by  General  Sanford. 

Saul  Blood  (John  Saul's  Sweet  Blood).  Form  oblate; 
size  small  to  medium,  23-4  x  27-8  inches;  color  dark 
orange;  apex  rounded,  very  slightly  scarred;  base  smooth; 
calyx  small;  rind  thin,  about  1-8  inch  thick,  smooth  and 
tough,  rather  easily  detached ;  sections  not  clearly  marked, 
about  ten  in  number;  flesh  fine  grained,  yellow  at  first, 
becoming  blood  marked  when  fully  matured;  juice  sacks 
small,  elongated;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended; 
flavor  rich,  vinous  and  sprightly;  quality  excellent;  pith 
small,  solid;  seeds  about  sixteen  in  number,  of  medium 
size,  oval  and  pointed;  season  December-February. 

Introduced  by  John  Saul,  of  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  93 

St.  Michael  (Blood).  Form  oblong-rounded;  size 
medium,  215-16  x  215-16  inches;  color  yellow,  with  deep 
orange  red  blotches  appearing  on  the  rind  as  it  nears  ma- 
turity, orange  red  throughout  when  fully  ripened;  apex 
rounded,  slightly  scarred;  base  smooth,  rounded;  rind 
thin,  1-8  inch  thick ;  oil  cells  quite  conspicuous,  flush  with 
the  surface  or  somewhat  elevated;  sections  distinctly 
marked,  regular  in  size;  flesh  fine  grained,  wine  red  in 
color ;  juice  sacks  rather  large,  spindle-shaped ;  juice  plenti- 
ful, yellow  in  color,  the  coloring  matter  of  the  flesh  appar- 
ently being  located  in  the  tissue  of  the  juice  sacks;  pulp 
melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  excel- 
lent; pith  solid,  1-4  inch  across;  seeds  present,  rounded, 
short,  plump,  oval,  medium  sized;  season  January  and 
February. 

A  fine  variety  of  medium  size,  imported  from  the 
Mediterranean  by  General  Sanford. 

IV.  NAVEL  ORANGES. 


Fig1.  19.     Bahia  Navel  Oranges. 


94  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Australian.  Fruit  seedy,  varying  in  size  from  large 
to  small,  and  splits  at  the  navel,  which  is  usually  large 
and  prominent.  Tree  strong  grower,  but  a  very  shy  bearer. 
(Lelong.) 

Introduced  from  Australia  by  Lewis  Wolfskill,  of  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  in  1874.  Once  largely  planted  in  Califor- 
nia, but  now  replaced  by  Bahia. 

Bahia  (Washington  Navel,  Riverside  Navel).  Form 
rounded ;  somewhat  tapering  towards  the  apex ;  size  large, 
3  1-4  x  3  1-4  inches,  35-8x3  1-2  inches ;  color  orange  or 
orange  yellow;  apex  terminating  in  an  umbilicus,  taper- 
ing slightly  outwards,  flattened  on  the  tip;  base  rounded 
or  somewhat  flattened  and  frequently  creased;  calyx 
small ;  rind  smooth,  tough,  leathery,  1-8  to  1-4  inch  thick ; 
oil  cells  large,  almost  globose;  sections  well  defined,  nine 
to  eleven  in  number;  flesh  rather  coarse,  deep  orange  yel- 
low in  color;  juice  sacks  rather  large,  spindle-shaped; 
juice  plentiful,  but  in  poor  specimens  inclined  to  run  slack 
in  the  stem  end;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well 
blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous;  quality  excellent;  seeds  ab- 
sent; season  December-February,  or  later. 

This  is  the  great  commercial  orange  of  California,  but 
in  Florida  it  has  not  been  a  success  owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  sufficiently  prolific.  When  planted  in  the  latter 
State  it  should  be  worked  either  on  rough  lemon  or  tri- 
foliate stock. 

According  to  some  writers  the  Bahia  Navel  was 
planted  in  Florida  previous  to  1835,  but  disappeared  in  the 
freeze  of  that  year.  But  whether  this  can  be  substantiated 
or  not,  the  Bahia  of  to-day  was  received  by  the  late  Wm. 
Saunders,  of  the  U.  S.  Agricultural  Department,  in  1870. 
Trees  of  this  importation  were  distributed  and  two  were 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  95 

received  by  Mrs.  Tibbetts,  of  Riverside,  Cal.,  in  1874.  Mr. 
Alexander  Craw  also  received  trees  about  the  same  time. 
Fruit  from  Mrs.  Tibbett's  trees  was  exhibited  at  the  Riv- 
erside citrus  fair  in  1879  and  attracted  a  great  deal  of 
attention.  The  variety  was  propagated  rapidly  and 
planted  so  extensively  that  it  has  become  the  most  impor- 
tant California  orange. 

The  variety  was  also  sent  to  Florida,  and  though  some 
fruit  is  produced,  it  has  received  but  little  attention,  as 
it  has  not  proved  to  be  a  prolific  variety. 

Double  (Imperial).  Form  rounded;  size  small,  2  1-2 
x  21-2  inches;  color  golden  yellow,  bright;  apex  rounded, 
umbilicus  hidden;  base  rounded,  smooth;  calyx  small, 
pointed;  rind  smooth,  closely  attached;  sections  some- 
what irregular,  eleven  in  number,  well  defined ;  juice  fairly 
abundant;  pulp  not  entirely  melting;  sweetness  predomi- 
nating; flavor  very  good;  seeds  present,  six  in  number, 
oval,  of  medium  size;  season  December-February. 

Introduced  by  Major  Rountree,  of  New  Orleans,  La. 
It  was  originally  imported  from  Brazil.  It  is  inclined  to 
hold  its  fruit  a  little  better  than  most  navel  oranges  in 
Florida,  but  for  California  planters  it  is  inferior  to  Bahia. 

Egyptian.  Form,  oblong,  rounded,  shouldered;  size, 
large,  3%x3%  inches;  heavy;  color  deep  orange;  apex 
navel  marked,  navel  frequently  included;  base  flat, 
creased  and  rough;  calyx  small,  blunt;  stem  rather  slen- 
der ;  rind  rough,  pebbled,  3-16  inch  thick,  adhering  tightly ; 
oil  cells  elevated  or  depressed,  balloon  shaped,  medium  in 
size;  flesh  not  meaty,  fiber  scant,  color  orange,  coarse 
grained;  juice  yellowish,  abundant,  sometimes  slightly 
lacking  at  stem;  quality  excellent;  pith  small,  solid,  seeds 
none;  season  December  and  January. 


96  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Described  from  specimens  from  the  grove  of  C.  W. 
Butler,  St.  Petersburgh.  Fruits  well  on  rough  lemonstock. 

Melitensis.  Form  rounded  oval ;  size  large,  3  11-16  x 
3  1-2  inches;  apex  navel  marked,  umbilicus  not  constricted 
outward  as  in  the  Bahia,  the  apex  being  rounded  instead ; 
base  flattened  or  rounded;  calyx  small,  segments  sharp 
pointed;  rind  1-8  inch  thick,  smooth;  oil  cells  large,  con- 
spicuous and  flush  with  the  surface ;  sections  eight  or  more, 
well  defined ;  quite  regular ;  flesh  rather  coarse ;  color  deep 
yellow;  juice  sacks  rather  large,  spindle-shaped;  juice 
plentiful,  colored;  pulp  melting,  free  from  rag;  acidity 
and  sweetness  not  well  blended,  not  quite  acid  enough, 
rather  flat  in  taste;  quality  fair;  pith  small,  1-4  inch  or 
more ;  seeds  none ;  season  November-December. 

This  variety  was  introduced  from  Paris,  France,  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  is  not 
prolific. 

Parson.  Form  rounded  oblate;  medium  size,  2  3-4  x 
31-8  inches,  3  x  37-16  inches;  color  light  yellow,  bright; 
apex  rounded  or  somewhat  flattened;  navel  marked;  base 
rounded,  sometimes  creased;  calyx  small,  blunt  pointed; 
rind  smooth,  thin,  1-8  to  3-16  inch;  oil  cells  flush  with  the 
surface;  sections  well  defined,  ten  in  number;  flesh  rather 
coarse,  orange  yellow  in  color;  juice  sacks  broad  at  the 
base,  spindle-shaped;  juice  abundant,  fruit  being  well 
filled  out;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well 
blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous,  excellent;  pith  close,  1-2  inch 
across;  seeds  present,  twelve  in  number,  oval,  flattened, 
pointed,  large,  5-8  x  3-8  inch ;  season  December-January. 

According  to  Reasoner  this  variety  was  introduced 
into  Florida  in  1869  by  S.  B.  Parsons,  of  Flushing,  Long 


THE  SWEET  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  97 

Island,  who  imported  it  from  the  Rivers  Nurseries,  Eng- 
land.   The  variety  is  not  prolific  in  Florida. 

Surprise.  Form  rounded  or  very  slightly  oblate; 
size  medium,  packing  150-176  to  the  box,  2  15-16  x  2  15-16 
inches,  2  3-8  x  3  inches;  heavy,  sinking  in  water  leaving 
a  space  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar  not  immersed;  color 
deep  orange;  base  rounded  or  very  slightly  flattened;  ca- 
lyx 3-8  inch  across ;  stem  small ;  apex  navel-marked,  navel 
small,  1-8  to  3-8  inch  across,  rounded,  occasionally  flat- 
tened, or  protruding,  as  in  Bahia ;  3-4  inch  inside,  the  rind 
of  the  fruit  incurved;  rind  smooth,  tough,  satiny,  thin, 
1-8  inch  thick,  adhering  closely;  oil  cells  prominent  and 
slightly  elevated  above  the  surface;  sections  clearly  de- 
fined, the  dividing  septa  thin,  thirteen  in  number,  varia- 
ble in  size;  juice  sacks  spindle-shaped,  small;  flesh  fine 
grained,  yellow  in  color;  juice  abundant,  acidity  and 
sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  rich,  vinous;  quality  ex- 
cellent; seeds  none;  season,  November-February. 

Surprise  is  an  excellent  orange,  fully  equal  in  qual- 
ity to  the  best.  It  is  juicy  and  heavy.  Mr.  E.  S.  Hub- 
bard  says  that  the  variety  fruits  better  than  Hart's  late, 
even  when  budded  on  sour  stock.  He  has  fruited 
it  for  three  years.  It  must,  therefore,  be  looked  upon 
as  a  decided  acquisition  of  Florida  planters.  The  variety 
is  distinct  from  the  other  navel  oranges,  though  occas- 
ional specimens  resemble  Bahia.  No  seeds  have  been  found 
in  any  of  the  fruits.  It  is  unreservedly  recommended  for 
trial.  The  bud  from  which  this  navel  orange  originated 
was  discovered  among  a  lot  of  King  mandarin  orange  trees 
propagated  by  Mr.  E.  S.  Hubbard,  Federal  Point,  Fla., 
from  budwood  obtained  originally  from  California. 


98  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Sustain.  Form  rounded ;  size  small  to  medium,  2  3-4 
x  2  5-8  inches;  color  yellow;  apex  navel  marked,  the  navel 
small  and  not  protruding;  base  flattened,  rounded,  calyx 
small,  blunt  pointed;  rind  thin,  1-8  inch  thick,  smooth; 
oil  cells  small,  sections  eleven,  well  defined;  flesh  fine 
grained,  orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  small;  juice  abund- 
ant; pulp  melting;  acidity  normal,  sweetness  balancing 
the  acid;  pith  1-2  inch  across;  seeds  present,  oval,  flat- 
tened, pointed,  of  medium  size,  three  to  four  in  number, 
with  some  abortive;  season  December-January. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 
MANDARIN   ORANGES— VARIETIES. 


Beauty  (Beauty) 
of  Glen  Retreat.) 
Form  oblate,  de- 
cidedly flattened, 
sections  showing 
through  the  rind ; 
size  medium,  2  1-8 
x  215-16  inches, 
2  3-16  x  2 13-16 
inches ;  stem  small 
and  slender;  apex 
flat  or  with  a  very 
slight  depression ; 
base  slightly  de- 
pressed and  ridged 
about  the  calyx ; 
color  deep  reddish 
orange,  not  so 

highly  colored  as  Dancy,  glossy;  rind  smooth,  very  thin 
1-16  of  an  inch  or  slightly  more  in  thickness ;  oil  cells  flush 
with  the  surface,  large,  conspicuous,  elliptical,  oval  or 
much  flattened,  frequently  set  in  the  pithy  lining  of  the 
rind  from  which  they  may  be  detached  easily ;  sections  ten 
or  more,  clearly  defined,  regular;  rag  almost  entirely  lack- 
ing; flesh  orange  colored;  juice  sacks  broad,  blunt;  pulp 
melting;  juice  plentiful,  orange  colored;  flavor  distinct, 
rich,  vinous;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  seeds 


Fig".  20.     King  Mandarin  Orange  Tree 
in   Fruit. 


100  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

present,  small,  few,  top-shaped;  core  small,  open,  1-2  inch 
or  less  in  diameter;  season  December  to  January. 

Tree  thornless,  branches  and  branchlets  slender  and 
willowy ;  leaves  small,  resembling  those  of  Dancy ;  petioles 
characteristically  small  and  slender,  3-4  of  an  inch  long. 

The  fruit  of  this  variety  is  very  heavy,  and  though  it 
floats  in  water  it  sinks  almost  below  the  surface.  The 
color,  while  not  possessing  quite  so  much  of  the  reddish 
tinge  as  Dancy,  it  is  decidedly  darker  than  China.  In  flavor 
it  resembles  Dancy,  though  it  is  distinct.  Beauty  is  a  var- 
iety well  worthy  of  propagation  and  trial. 

The  only  orange  grower  in  Florida  known  to  have  this 
variety  is  Cyrus  W.  Butler,  of  St.  Petersburg.  Mr.  Butler 
received  his  buds  of  the  variety  from  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment and  Colonel  Brackett  informed  the  author  that 
it  was  introduced  from  Australia  by  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  1893.  In  a  letter  to  the  writer  dated 
at  Sydney,  N.  S.  Wales,  Aust.,  April  18,  1902,  W.  J.  Allen, 
Government  fruit  expert  for  that  colony,  says :  This  man- 
darin was  raised  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Parker  within  a  few  miles 
of  Brisbane  (Queensland),  Aust.,  and  is,  I  believe,  a  seed- 
ling from  either  the'  Emperor  or  Scarlet  mandarin.  The 
original  tree  was  raised  some  time  in  1888  or  1889.  The 
fruit  is  of  good  size,  solid,  with  a  beautiful,  thin,  tough 
rind  and  carries  well.  It  is  usually  a  good  cropper  and 
proves  a  profitable  variety  to  grow." 

China  (China  Celestial,  China  Mandarin,  Kid-Glove, 
Tangier  ine,  Willow  Leaved).  Form  oblate,  compressed; 
size  medium,  17-8x2  1-2  inches,  2  15-16  x  3  inches,  usually 
about  2  x  29-16  inches;  color  dark  orange,  shiny;  apex 
slightly  scarred,  depressed,  depression  very  shallow  and 
rather  broad ;  base  nearly  smooth,  somewhat  necked  or 
creased,  the  number  of  creases  frequently  corresponding 


MANDARIN  ORANGES—  VARIETIES'/  '' 


with  the  number  of  sections  ;  stem  small  ;  calyx  small,  set 
in  a  slight  depression  ;  rind  smooth,  generally  marked  with 
depressions,  corresponding  to  the  number  of  sections,  1-8 
inch  or  less  in  thickness,  very  loosely  attached;  oil  cells 
conspicuous,  slightly  depressed  or  flush  with  the  surface; 
sections  ten  to  thirteen,  rather  irregular  in  size,  well  de- 
fined ;  flesh  coarse  grained  in  appearance,  orange  in  color  ; 
juice  sacks  short,  broad  and  blunt;  pulp  melting;  juice 
plentiful,  colored;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  combined; 
flavor  vinous,  peculiar  and  distinct  (musky?)  ;  seeds  fif- 
teen to  twenty-five,  brownish  white,  top-shaped,  roundish, 
beaked,  plump;  core  open,  spongy,  3-4  inch  in  diameter; 
season  November  to  December. 

Tree  very  willowy  in  growth,  almost  thornless  ;  leaves 
small,  narrow,  deep  green;  fruit  usually  borne  singly  at 
the  tips  of  slender  branches. 

China  is  not  so  extensively  cultivated  in  Florida  as  the 
variety  Dancy.  In  Louisiana  it  predominated  before  the 
freeze,  and  New  Orleans  is  one  of  the  best  markets.  The 
fruit  is  frequently  in  good  shape  for  the  Thanksgiving 
trade. 

Introduced  into  Louisiana  from  Italy  between  1840 
and  1850.  From  thence  it  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
to  Florida  by  Major  Atway,  date  unknown.  The  original 
tree  was  growing  on  the  Atway  place  when  purchased  by 
the  late  Dr.  Moragne,  Palatka,  Fla. 

Cleopatra  (Spice  Tangierine).  From  oblate  flattened 
and  irregular  in  circumference  outline;  size  small,  1  3-16 
x  1  3-4  inches,  11-4x2  1-8  inches  ;  color  dark  orange  red, 
not  so  bright  as  Dancy  ;  stem  slender,  base  flat,  slightly  de- 
pressed or  sometimes  slightly  elevated,  roughened  about 
the  calyx;  apex  depressed,  generally  navel  marked;  rind 
rough  or  inclined  to  roughness,  1-8  inch  or  less  in  thick- 


Plate  V. 


(From  Bui.   66,  Fla.  Exp.  Station.) 

Dancy  Mandarin  Orange. 


MANDARIN  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  l()3 

ness,  loosely  attached,  in  very  ripe  specimens  separating 
entirely  from  the  pulp  ball;  oil  cells  small,  numerous;  sec- 
tions fifteen,  small;  flesh  orange  colored,  coarse  grained; 
juice  sacks  typically  broad  and  blunt;  juice  abundant,  col- 
ored; flavor  vinous,  acidity  and  sweetness  normal;  qual- 
ity good ;  seeds  about  twenty,  small,  top-shaped ;  pith  small, 
open;  season  January  and  February. 

Tree  thornless,  forming  a  dense  top,  upright  but  in- 
clined to  be  willowy;  leaves  small;  fruits  produced  singly 
or  in  bunches.  As  an  ornamental  this  variety  is  very 
beautiful,  but  as  a  commercial  variety  it  is  not  worthy  of 
cultivation.  The  fruit  is  small  and  the  trees  not  suffic- 
iently prolific  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency  in  size  by  an 
abundance  of  fruit. 

In  Bulletin  1,  U.  S.  D.  A.,  Div.  Pomology,  Reasoner 
says  that  the  Spice  tangierine  was  introduced  into  Florida 
by  Colonel  Codrington  from  Jamaica.  Under  the  name 
Cleopatra  it  had  been  known  for  a  long  time  in  Florida. 

Dancy  (Tangierine,  Dancy's  Tangierine,  Bijou,  Mo- 
ragne's  Tangierine).  Form  oblate,  sections  showing 
through  the  rind ;  size  medium,  13-4x2  5-8  inches,  2  1-8  x 
31-16  inches;  color  deep  orange  red,  almost  tomato  red, 
shiny;  stem  slender;  base  sometimes  smooth,  frequently 
nippled  or  more  or  less  corrugated;  calyx  small,  segments 
blunt  pointed;  apex  terminating  in  a  broad,  shallow  depres- 
sion, sometimes  scarred ;  rind  smooth,  1-16  to  1-8  inch  thick, 
leathery,  easily  removed,  attached  by  a  few  strings  to  the 
flesh ;  oil  cells  small,  usually  flush  with  the  surface,  though 
sometimes  slightly  depressed;  sections  eleven  to  fourteen 
in  number,  fairly  regular  in  size,  easily  detached  from 
one  another;  flesh  dark  orange  colored,  coarse  grained; 
juice  sacks  short,  broad  and  blunt;  juice  abundant,  col- 
ored; rag  almost  entirely  absent;  pulp  melting; 


104  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  rich  and 
sprightly;  quality  excellent;  pith  open,  3-4  inch 
across;  seeds  seven  to  twenty,  rather  small,  short 
and  blunt  or  top-shaped  and  beaked;  season  December 
and  January. 

Tree  compactly  headed,  rather  upright  though  tending 
to  spread  as  the  head  is  opened  from  year  to  year  by  the 
weight  of  the  fruit,  densely  foliaged,  fruit  exposed  on  the 
outer  portion  of  the  tree.  Dancy  has  been  more  generally 
planted  than  any  other  variety  of  the  group.  Its  high  color 
combined  with  excellent  quality  makes  it  a  particularly 
fine  variety.  It  is  commonly  known  throughout  Florida 
and  in  the  markets  as  tangierine.  The  variety  Dancy  is 
said  to  have  originated  as  a  seedling  at  Buena  Vista,  St. 
Johns  County,  Fla.  The  parent  tree  was  raised  by  Col. 
Geo.  L.  Dancy  and  was  introduced  into  cultivation  in 
1871  or  early  in  1872.  It  has  proved  to  be  a  very  prolific 
variety. 

Pliny  Reasoner  says  that  Dancy  is  a  seedling  of  China. 
I  am  inclined  to  doubt  this,  for  if  such  were  the  case  it  is 
not  likely  that  it  would  prove  so  strongly  prepotent  as 
it  is.  Every  seedling  of  Dancy  observed  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  parent.  Moreover,  in  a  letter  dated 
at  Palatka,  Fla.,  Jan.  1,  1903,  Miss  S.  W.  Moragne  states 
that  a  tangierine  tree  was  growing  on  her  father's  place 
when  it  was  purchased  about  1843,  and  further  states  that 
China  was  not  the  first  of  the  group  grown  in  Florida. 
Twigs  of  trees  propagated  from  the  original  strongly  re- 
semble Dancy.  The  author  believes  that  Dancy  originated 
from  this  variety. 

King  (King  of  Siam).  (Bui.  Div.  Pomology,  U.  S. 
D.  A.  1:73, 1887).  Form  oblate ;  size  large,  23-8x3  inches, 
3  1-16  x  3  3-4  inches,  3  3-8  x  4  1-4  inches ;  color  deep  orange ; 


Plate  VI. 


(From  Bui.   66,  Fla.  Exp.  Station.) 

King   Mandarin    Orange. 


106  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

base  somewhat  roughened  and  creased;  apex  flattened, 
scarred  and  very  slightly  depressed;  calyx  small,  five 
pointed;  rind  rough,  pitted,  1-8  to  1-4  inch  thick,  separat- 
ing easily  from  the  flesh ;  oil  cells  large,  flush  with  the  sur- 
face or  slightly  depressed,  mostly  balloon-shaped;  sections 
thirteen,  fairly  regular,  easily  detached  from  one  another; 
flesh  rather  coarse  grained,  orange  in  color;  juice  sacks 
spindle-shaped,  not  so  broad  and  blunt  as  in  other  members 
of  the  group ;  juice  abundant,  colored ;  pulp  melting ;  acid- 
ity and  sweetness  well  blended,  flavor  agreeable,  sprightly ; 
quality  very  good;  seeds  eighteen  to  twenty  in  number, 
large,  resembling  those  of  the  sweet  oranges,  cotyledons 
white;  season  late,  March- April. 

Tree  stiff  and  upright  in  growth,  generally  thorny, 
though  some  specimens  have  fewer  thorns  than  others, 
foliage  dark  green,  resembling  that  of  the  sweet  oranges. 

The  King  mandarin  has  been  quite  extensively  planted 
in  Florida,  but  at  the  present  time  does  not  appear  to  be 
held  in  quite  as  high  estimation  as  it  formerly  was.  The 
wood  appears  to  be  brittle  and  frequently  the  trees  bear 
so  heavily  that  they  are  almost  stripped  of  their  branches 
by  the  weight  of  the  fruit.  This  might  be  obviated  by 
thinning.  The  fruit  is  much  exposed  to  the  sun  and  is 
frequently  badly  sunburned  and  rendered  unsalable.  On 
the  other  hand  it  must  be  stated  in  its  favor  that  the  var- 
iety is  prolific,  of  good  quality,  and  since  it  matures  late 
in  the  season,  good  prices  are  always  secured.  The  var- 
iety was  introduced  into  California  from  Cochin  China 
in  the  year  1882  by  Dr.  R.  Magee,  Eiverside,  Cal.  Intro- 
duced into  Florida  in  the  same  year  from  California  by 
Mr.  John  Carville  Storin,  of  Winter  Park,  Fla. 

Kinneloa.  Form  roundish  oblate,  size  medium,  1  1-4 
x  2  inches,  27-8  x  27-8  inches;  color  deep  reddish  orange; 


MANDARIN  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  107 

base  somewhat  nippled;  apex  with  a  small  dot  in  a  med- 
ium small  basin;  surface  undulating,  rough;  oil  cells 
numerous,  depressed;  rind  loosely  attached,  1-8  inch  in 
thickness,  pungent,  aromatic;  flesh  translucent,  tender; 
juice  cells  small  to  medium,  irregular;  tissue  thin;  juice 
abundant,  translucent,  flavor  and  acidity  medium;  seeds 
present,  plump,  straw  colored,  of  medium  size,  ten  in  num- 
ber. Fruit  heavy  arid  of  good  quality.  Description  from 
specimens  from  J.  E.  Cutler,  Riverside,  Cal.,  by  Division 
of  Pomology,  U.  S.  D.  A.,  and  procured  through  the  kind- 
ness of  Col.  G.  B.  Brackett,  Pomologist. 

Kino  Kuni.  Form  oblate,  much  flattened,  size  small 
to  medium,  13-8x2  inches,  15-8x2  5-8  inches ;  color  deep 
orange  or  orange  red;  stem  slender;  base  usually  creased 
or  roughened  with  four  or  five  ridges ;  calyx  small,  slightly 
depressed;  apex  ending  in  a  broad,  shallow  depression 
nearly  3-16  inch  deep;  rind  rather  rough,  separating  read- 
ily from  the  pulp,  1-8  inch  or  slightly  less  in  thickness ;  oil 
cells  conspicuous,  depressed;  sections  usually  thirteen  in 
number,  irregular  in  size;  flesh  coarse  grained,  reddish 
orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  short,  broad,  blunt;  juice 
abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness 
well  blended;  flavor  sprightly;  quality  quite  good;  pith 
open;  seeds  thirteen  to  fourteen,  top-shaped,  beaked;  cotyle- 
dons green;  season  November-December. 

Tree  compactly  headed,  resembling  Cleopatra;  leaves 
small;  fruit  of  quite  good  quality,  but  not  of  much  com- 
mercial importance. 

It  is  not  known  when  the  variety  Kino  Kuni  was  first 
introduced  into  Florida,  but  at  present  the  tree  in  the  grove 
formerly  owned  by  Mr.  John  Thomson  at  Clearwater  Har- 
bor, is  the  only  one  known  to  the  writer.  It  is  a  Japanese 


108  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

variety  and  Mr.  Thomson  received  his  tree  from  Mr.  J.  L. 
Normand,  of  Marksville,  La.,  in  August,  1894. 

Mikado.  Form  oblate;  size  medium  to  large,  1  3-8 
x  2  5-8  inches,  21-8x3  inches ;  color  orange  yellow ;  stem 
stout,  base  slightly  depressed  about  the  calyx,  rough  or 
corrugated;  calyx  small,  sunken;  apex  terminated  by  a 
broad,  shallow  depression ;  rind  slightly  rough,  1-8  inch  in 
thickness;  oil  cells,  occasionally  1-16  inch  in  diame- 
ter, conspicuous,  slightly  elevated  or  sometimes  depressed; 
sections  thirteen  to  fourteen,  well  defined,  rather  irregular, 
separating  easily;  flesh  orange  colored,  coarse  grained; 
juice  sacks  elongated,  or  broad  and  blunt ;  juice  abundant, 
orange  colored;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness  well 
blended;  flavor  rich,  sprightly;  quality  very  good;  pith 
open,  3-4  inch  across;  seeds  nine,  top-shaped,  distinctly 
beaked,  large,  3-4  x  1-4  x  5-16  inch ;  cotyledons  green ;  sea- 
son October-November. 

Tree  inclined  to  be  upright,  in  general  resembling  Sat- 
suma,  but  not  so  reclinate;  leaves  with  petioles  generally 
distinctly  flanged.  As  already  noted,  this  variety  closely 
resembles  Satsuma,  of  which  it  is  a  seedling.  It  differs 
from  Satsuma  in  its  more  upright  habit,  in  having  dis- 
tinctly flanged  leaves,  in  the  larger  and  more  distinct  oil 
cells  of  the  rind,  in  the  shape  and  number  of  the  seeds,  and 
the  larger,  broader  depression  about  the  apex.  It  cannot, 
however,  be  considered  as  being  in  anywise  superior  to  Sat- 
suma. Originated  \>y  Rev.  Lyman  Phelps,  of  Sanford,  Fla. 

Oneco.  Reasoner's  Catalogue,  1900.  Form  oblate, 
flattened  at  the  apex  and  tapering  from  about  the  middle 
to  the  base;  size  medium  to  large,  25-16  x  27-8  inches. 
21-2x3  1-4  inches;  color  deep  orange  yellow;  base  slightly 
ridged  or  smooth ;  calyx  very  small ;  apex  ending  in  a 
broad,  shallow  depression;  rind  1-8  inch  thick,  generally 


Plate  VII. 


(From  Bui.   66,   Fla.  Exp.   Station.) 

Oneco   Mandarin   Orange. 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


inclined  to  be  rough  though  frequently  smooth,  easily  de- 
tached; oil  cells  large  and  conspicuous;  sections  twelve 
in  number,  fairly  regular,  clearly  defined;  flesh  coarse 
grained,  orange  yellow  in  color,  juice  sacks  broad,  short; 
juice  abundant,  colored;  rag  absent;  pulp  melting;  acidity 
and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  distinct,  rich,  vinous; 
quality  excellent;  pith  open;  seeds  small,  twelve  to  four- 
teen, top-shaped,  beaked;  cotyledons  green;  season  Jan- 
uary-March. 

Tree  rather  upright,  foliage  small  with  a  pronounced 
fragrance  when  bruised;  thorny,  but  with  many  thornless 
branches.  The  fruit  is  excellent  in  flavor  and  is  not  sur- 
passed in  quality  by  any  other  variety  of  the  mandarin 
group  known  to  the  writer.  The  flavor  may  be  said  to 
resemble  a  combination  of  Dancy,  King  and  Satsuma. 

This  variety  was  raised  from  seed  received  from  north- 
western India  and  planted  by  the  late  P.  W.  Reasoner  in 
1888.  The  original  seedling  tree  is  still  standing  on  the 
grounds  of  the  Koyal  Palm  Nurseries,  at  Oneco,  Fla. 

Satsuma.  (Oonshiu.)  Manville's  Prac.  Orange  Cult. 
112.  1883.  Form  oblate;  sections  frequently  showing 
through  the  rind  ;  size  variable,  17-8x2  5-8  inches  and  2  5-8 
x  3  7-16  inches  representing  the  variation  in  size;  color 
orange  yellow  ;  base  usually  slightly  creased  ;  calyx  small  ; 
apex  scarred  with  a  round  brownish  spot  situated  in  a 
broad,  shallow  depression;  rind  1-8  inch  thick,  inclined  to 
be  rough;  oil  cells  large,  conspicuous,  frequently  depressed 
though  sometimes  flush  with  the  surface;  flesh  coarse 
grained,  deep  orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  short,  broad; 
juice  abundant,  yellowish  orange  in  color;  pulp  melting; 
acidity  and  sweetness  well  balanced;  flavor  sprightly, 
agreeable;  quality  excellent;  pith  open  with  the  sections 
frequently  separated  at  the  inner  edges;  generally  seedless 


Plate  VIII. 


(From  Bui.  66,  Fla.  Exp.  Station.; 

Satsuma  Mandarin  Orange. 


H2  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

though,  occasionally  from  one  to  four  seeds  are  found,  top- 
shaped,  broad,  plump,  not  distinctly  beaked  as  in  others 
of  the  group;  season  October-November. 

Tree  thornless  and  of  spreading  dwarf  habit,  branches 
reclinate,  branchlets  angled;  leaves  broad,  tapering 
abruptly  toward  the  apex,  petioles  scarcely  margined.  The 
leaves  generally  point  upward  and  thus  either  follow  the 
direction  of  the  branches  or  are  at  right  angles  to  them. 
The  smaller  fruits  ripen  first  while  the  larger  ones  are 
later  in  maturing.  The  Satsuma  is  at  its  best  just  when  it 
reaches  maturity.  In  the  extreme  southern  end  of 
Florida  it  does  not  color  well,  but  remains  green  or  greenish 
for  a  considerable  time  after  the  juice  has  acquired  its  best 
flavor.  The  variety  is  very  hardy  in  north  Florida  and  is 
strongly  recommended  for  planting  in  that  portion  of  the 
State.  The  fruit  is  well  received  in  the  markets,  the  trees 
bear  regularly  a  fair  crop  of  fruit.  Fruit  and  leaves  some- 
times attacked  and  distorted  by  the  attacks  of  scab,  caused 
by  Cladosporium  elegans  Penzig. 

Satsuma  is  a  Japanese  variety  introduced  into  Florida 
by  Dr.  Geo.  B.  Hall  in  1876,  and  again  by  Mrs.  Van  Valk- 
enburg  in  1878. 

HYBRID    VARIETIES. 

Tangerona.  Form  roundish-oblate ;  size  small,  2  3-16 
x  2  1-2  inches,  sinking  5-6  when  placed  in  water;  color 
orange  yellow;  base  rounded,  very  slightly  irregular; 
calyx  small,  lobes  pointed;  stem  small;  apex  scarred, 
slightly  depressed;  rind  pebbled  because  of  the  elevated 
oil  cells,  1-8  inch  thick,  tightly  attached;  oil  cells  convex 
at  the  outer  sides,  elevated  above  the  rind  so  as  to  give 
it  a  pebbled  appearance  and  feeling;  sections  distinctly 
marked,  firmly  attached  to  each  other,  eleven  in  number, 


MANDARIN  ORANGES— VARIETIES.  H3 

small,  rather  irregular  in  size;  juice  sacks  broad  and 
blunt  like  those  of  the  mandarin  oranges,  of  medium  size; 
flesh  coarse  grained,  melting,  orange  yellow  in  color;  juice 
abundant,  acidity  and  sweetness  well  blended;  flavor  rich 
and  vinous,  quality  very  good;  pith  proportionately  large, 
1-2  to  5-8  inch  across;  seeds  present,  wedged,  broad  and 
flat  or  oval,  large,  5-8  x  5-16  inch;  cotyledons  white  or 
sometimes  a  greenish  one  is  found;  season,  September- 
October. 

The  Tangerona  orange  originated  in  Brazil  and  was 
introduced  into  Florida  a  number  of  years  ago.  It  is 
not  cultivated  to  any  extent.  The  quality  is  very  good, 
but  the  small  size  is  against  it,  and  it  is  very  susceptible  to 
injury  from  frost.  It  appears  to  be  a  hybrid  between 
one  of  the  mandarin  oranges  and  one  of  the  sweet 
oranges. 


rtwto   ly  Ensminger. 

Fig.   21.     A  Grove  of  Dancy  Mandarins   in   Florida. 


Plate  IX. 


A  Cluster  of  Hall  Pomelos. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
POMELO  GROUP— VARIETIES. 

VARIETIES    WITH    PINK    FLESH. 

Tresca.  Form  roundish,  necked  or  with  a  distinct 
tendency  to  pyriform  shape ;  size  large,  4x4  15-16  inches, 
41-4x4  9-16  inches ;  color  dark  lemon  yellow ;  apex  broad, 
flat,  scarcely  depressed,  scarred;  base  ridged  and  slightly 
roughened;  rind  smooth,  1-4  to  5-8  inch  in  thickness;  oil 
cells  rather  small ;  sections  distinctly  marked,  irregular  in 
size,  fifteen  in  number ;  flesh  coarse ,  color  pink  or  pinkish, 
the  coloring  matter  apparently  located  in  the  walls  and  in 
the  juice  sacks,  the  inner  rind  and  section  divisions;  juice 
sacks  large,  spindle-shaped ;  juice  plentiful,  colorless ;  pulp 
melting;  acidity,  sweetness  and  bitterness  normal,  well 
blended ;  flavor  excellent ;  pith  solid,  3-4  inch  across ;  seeds 
pinkish,  small,  wedge-shaped  or  roundish,  seventy-two  in 
number;  season  February  and  March. 

The  pyriform  shape  of  the  fruit  is  somewhat  objec- 
tionable, as  the  neck  portion  is  filled  with  the  inner  rind. 
The  quality  compares  well  with  any  of  the  other  varieties 
and  the  color  of  the  flesh  makes  it  interesting. 

As  to  its  origin,  Mr.  E.  N.  Reasoner  says :  "We  found 
the  Tresca  pomelo  in  the  grove  of  Capt.  Fred  Tresca  about 
the  year  1887;  the  Captain  had  brought  seeds  from  the 
Bahamas  some  years  previously  and  that  season  was  their 
first  crop.  The  color  and  flavor  was  so  novel  that  we  got 
buds  and  propagated  from  it." 

VARIETIES    WITH    LIGHT    COLORED    FLESH. 

Aurantium  (Orange).  Form  oblate;  size  31-2x3  7-8 
inches,  frequently  smaller:  stem  small;  color  light  yellow; 


H6  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

rind  smooth,  but  with  the  oil  cells  slightly  depressed ;  sec- 
tions eleven,  regular;  flesh  grayish  green;  bitter  principle 
not  marked  or  present  only  in  a  very  slight  degree ;  acidity 
medium ;  sweetness  good ;  seeds  thirty-five,  of  medium  size ; 
season  late. 

Aurantium  is  quite  generally  regarded  as  a  hybrid. 
Mr.  James  Mott,  who  introduced  the  variety,  has  written 
the  author  as  follows  regarding  its  origin :  "In  the  winter 
of  1888.  I  found  with  Mr.  J.  C.  Olouser,  Longwood,  Fla., 
what  seemed  to  me  was  a  very  superior  pomelo,  two  quite 
large  trees,  from  buds  he  then  told  me  he  supposed  were 
orange  when  he  took  the  buds  from  a  small  tree  which  he 
found  in  an  old  abandoned  seedling  nursery.  The  nursery 
was  planted  by  a  Mr.  Henkle  at  an  early  date  from  sweet 
orange  seed  procured  from  the  noted  Dummitt  grove  at 
or  near  the  head  of  Indian  River." 

This  variety,  as  already  noted,  is  held  to  be  a  hybrid 
between  the  sweet  orange  and  the  pomelo,  and  the  character 
of  the  fruit — so  different  from  that  of  the  pomelo — gives 
color  to  this  view.  The  quality  is  good,  but  falls  short 
of  the  standard  of  excellence  for  pomelos. 

DeSoto.  Form  oblate ;  size  37-8x4  7-8  inches ;  stem 
stout;  base  creased;  rind  medium  thick,  compact;  color 
light  yellow;  oil  cells  very  slightly  elevated;  sections  fif- 
teen, large,  irregular;  flesh  light  grayish;  juice  sacks 
large,  well  filled,  irregular;  bitterness  decidedly  marked; 
acidity  medium;  flavor  and  quality  both  good,  though 
slightly  lacking  in  character;  seeds  forty-three,  wedge- 
shaped,  large  and  plump;  season  late.  A  good  seedling- 
variety. 

In  reference  to  the  origin  of  this  variety,  Mr.  John 
Thomson,  of  Clearwater,  Fla.,  says:  "The  variety  is  one 
that  I  came  across  on  the  banks  of  the  Peace  River,  near 


POMELO  GROUP— VARIETIES.  117 

Zolfo,  Fla.  My  attention  was  first  called  to  it  in  1892-3. 
*  *  *  The  fruit  attracted  my  attention  and  I  decided  that 
it  had  distinctive  merit  of  its  own,  hence  I  brought  bud- 
wood  from  the  tree  with  me  to  Clearwater  in  the  spring  of 
1895." 

Duncan.  Form  oblate ;  size  33-8x4  1-8  inches,  4  1-2  x 
514  inches  or  larger;  color  light  yellow;  stem  large;  calyx 
segments  broad,  blunt;  apex  slightly  scarred;  rind  me- 
dium thick,  firm;  oil  cells  large,  sunken;  sections  four- 
teen; flesh  light  grayish  green;  juice  sacks  closely  packed, 
large;  bitterness  well  marked;  acidity  and  sweetness 
good;  core  %  inch  across,  somewhat  open;  seeds  five  or 
more,  large,  plump,  blunt,  not  winged ;  season  late. 

A  fruit  of  excellent  quality  originated  by  A.  L.  Dun- 
can, Dunedin,  Fla.,  and  cannot  be  too  highly  recom- 
mended for  general  planting. 

Excelsior.  (Excelsior  Late) .  Form  oblate ;  size  4  x 
43-4  inches;  color  lemon  3relloAv;  rind  very  slightly  pitted; 
oil  cells  large,  slightly  sunken;  sections  thirteen,  large, 
irregular ;  flesh  light  grayish ;  bitter  principle  well  marked ; 
acidity  normal;  quality  good;  seeds  thirty-one,  wedge- 
shaped,  large,  plump ;  season  late. 

"This  particular  fruit,  one  of  a  number  of  old  seed- 
lings, was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  manager  of  the  Lake- 
land Nursery  Co.  in  1886  or  '87.  He  propagated  about 
one  hundred  trees.  In  the  year  1890  my  personal  attention 
was  called  to  the  desirability,  quality  and  especially  the 
bearing  capacity,  and  after  repeated  demands  for  the 
variety,  I  propagated  it  for  the  first  time  in  my  nurseries 
located  at  Fort  Meade  in  1891."— C.  M.  Marsh  in  a  letter 
to  the  author,  dated  June  5,  1903. 

Hall.  (Silver  Cluster.)  (Hall's)  Klemm's  Silver 
Cluster. )  Form  oblate ;  size  41-8x4  5-8  inches,  or  larger ; 
stem  large;  color  light  yellow,  but  slightly  darker  than 


118 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


that  of  most  pomelos;  base  smooth,  or  sometimes  slightly 
creased;  rind  3-16  inch  thick;  oil  cells  slightly  indented; 
sections  fourteen,  large,  variable  in  size;  bitter  principle 
strongly  developed;  acidity  and  sweetness  well  marked; 
juice  almost  transparent ;  seeds  thirty- two,  small,  roundish, 
plump,  quite  a  number  aborted;  season  February-March. 
There  has  been  considerable  discussion  over  the  origin 
of  this  variety,  but  it  seems  to  be  a  fact  well  established 
that  it  was  originated  by  John  W.  Hall,  of  Caloosa,  Fla. 
The  original  tree  was  grown  from  seed  sown  by  him  when 
he  first  came  to  the  State  about  1885.  The  synonymy  as 
given  above  may  be  open  to  some  objections,  but  in  naming 
it  the  credit  has  been  given  to  Dr.  Hall,  to  whom  it  is 
believed  to  be  due. 

Josselyn. — 
Form  roundish- 
obovate ;  size 
31-8  x  3 1-2 
inches ;  stem 
medium ;  color 
yellow,  darkest 
of  all  the  varie- 
ties which  have 
come  under  ob- 
servation ;  rind 
smooth ;  oil  cells 
slightly  sunken ; 
sections  twelve, 
rather  irregu- 
lar, dividing  tis- 
sue thick;  flesh 
Photo  ly  Ensminger.  grayish  green; 


POMELO   GROUP—  VARIETIES. 


bitterness  strongly  marked;  acidity  and  sweetness  well 
developed;  core  1-2  inch  in  diameter,  solid;  seeds  forty- 
eight,  whitish,  small  and  plump;  season  December-  Janu- 
ary. 

This  variety  was  introduced  by  Messrs.  J.  W.  and  F. 
D.  Waite,  of  the  Magnolia  Nurseries,  Belleview,  Marion 
County,  Fla.,  in  1888.  The  original  tree  stood  in  the  old 
Josselyn  grove  at  East  Lake,  on  Lake  Weir. 

Leonardy.  Form  slightly  oblate  or  rounded  ;  size  med- 
ium, 33-4x4  1-2  inches,  37-8x4  5-16  inches  ;  color  lemon 
yellow;  apex  smooth,  not  depressed,  scar  small;  base 
smooth,  slightly  depressed;  calyx  small,  3-8  inch  across, 
lobes  not  conspicuous;  rind  smooth,  shiny,  1-4  inch  thick; 
oil  cells  flush  with  the  surface,  large  and  conspicuous; 
sections  well  defined,  large  and  regular,  ten  in  number; 
flesh  coarse,  light  grayish  in  color;  juice  sacks  large;  juice 
plentiful,  colorless;  pulp  melting;  acidity  and  sweetness 
well  balanced;  quality  excellent;  pith  open,  3-4  inch 
across;  seeds  present,  large,  broad,  flat,  twenty-eight  in 
number;  season  January. 

Manville.  (Manwlle's  Improved.)  Form  oblate  ;  size 
medium  to  large,  3  5-8  x  4  1-8  inches;  stem  small;  color 
lemon  yellow;  rind  1-4  inch  thick,  smooth,  the  oil  cells 
being  flush  with  the  surface  or  only  slightly  sunken;  sec- 
tions thirteen,  large,  fairly  regular;  flesh  light  grayish 
green  ;  juice  sacks  large,  irregular  ;  bitterness  well  marked  ; 
acidity  and  sweetness  good;  core  5-8  inch  in  diameter, 
compact;  seeds  sixty  to  seventy,  large;  season  late. 

In  relation  to  the  origin  of  this  variety,  Keasoner 
Brothers  made  the  following  statement:  "Manville's  Im- 
proved was  sent  us  by  the  late  A.  H.  Manville,  from  East 
Florida,  years  ago." 


120 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Thus  far  this  variety  has  not  been  catalogued,  but  the 
fruit  appears  to  be  very  desirable. 


Fig.    23.      Marsh   Pomelo. 

Marsh.  (Marsh's  Seedless.)  Form  oblate  roundish; 
size  31-8x4  7-8  inches,  31-2x4  1-2  inches,  35-8x4  7-8 
inches;  stem  small;  color  light  yellow;  rind  1-8  inch  thick, 
smooth;  oil  cells  small,  scarcely  or  not  at  all  indented; 
sections  thirteen,  regular,  partitions  thin;  juice  sacks 
small;  flesh  grayish  green;  bitter  principle  not  strongly 
marked;  acidity  and  sweetness  medium;  pith  5-8  inch  in 
diameter,  open;  seeds  two  to  six,  or  none,  large,  plump; 
season  February-March. 

This  variety  was  introduced  by  C.  M.  Marsh,  Lake- 
land, Fla.,  about  1895  or  1896.  The  original  tree  was 
a  seedling,  growing  in  Lakeland,  and  was  at  the  time  of 
the  freeze,  fully  sixty  years  old.  This  pomelo  has  not  the 
distinct,  pronounced  flavor  of  the  typical  fruit,  but  the 


POMELO    GROUP—  VARIETIES. 


quality  is  good,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  so  nearly  seedless 
is  a  very  desirable  feature. 

May.  (May's).  Form  oblate-rounded;  size  small  to 
medium,  31-4x3  1-2  inches,  3  5-16  x  3  3-4  inches  ;  heavy  in 
weight;  color  light  yellow;  base  rounded,  scarcely  de- 
pressed; calyx  small;  stem  small;  apex  rounded,  with  a 
very  slight  depression  marked  with  a  small  dark  spot; 
rind  smooth,  glossy,  tightly  attached,  1-4  inch  thick;  oil 
cells  conspicuous,  medium  sized,  just  level  with  the  sur- 
face; sections  clearly  defined,  twelve  in  number,  regular 
and  of  medium  size;  juice  sacks  large,  broad,  blunt;  flesh 
coarse  grained,  light  grayish  in  color;  juice  abundant; 
acidity  and  sweetness  normal,  bitterness  marked;  flavor 
and  quality  excellent;  pith  5-8  inch  across;  seeds  present, 
thick,  plump,  of  medium  size,  9-16  x  3-8  inch,  light  yellow- 
ish in  color,  forty-four  in  number  and  some  abortive; 
season,  November-February. 

The  May  pomelo  is  an  excellent  variety,  formerly  well 
known  in  Florida,  but  for  some  time  after  1895  it  dis- 
appeared almost  entirely.  Previous  to  that  time  it  won 
prizes  wherever  exhibited.  The  original  tree,  according  to 
Mr.  E.  S.  Hubbard,  was  probably  set  in  the  May's  grove 
at  Orange  Mills  on  the  St.  Johns  Kiver  with  his  orange 
trees  in  1824  by  Zephariah  Kingsley  Slaver. 

McKinley.  Form  oblate,  or  slightly  oblate  conical; 
size  37-8  x  43-4  inches;  color  pale  yellow;  rind  smooth, 
thin;  oil  cells  large,  conspicuous,  scarcely  indented;  sec- 
tions fourteen,  large,  slightly  irregular;  bitterness  marked; 
acidity  normal;  sweetness  good;  quality  of  the  best;  core 
3-4  -inch  in  diameter  pithy  ;  seeds  sixty-two,  wedge- 
shaped,  large;  season  late. 


122  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

This  is  a  pomelo  of  considerable  merit  and  worthy  of 
propagation.  The  variety  originated  as  a  seedling  in  the 
grove  of  A.  A.  Gardner,  Fort  Myers,  Fla. 

Nocatee.  Form  roundish  or  somewhat  oblate;  size 
small,  23-8x2  3-4  inches,  21-2x3  inches,  25-8x3  1-4 
inches;  stem  small;  calyx  small;  apex  slightly  marked; 
color  lemon  yellow,  occasionally  somewhat  deeper;  rind 
1-8  to  3-16  inch,  easily  detached;  oil  cells  minute,  slightly 
indented;  sections  twelve,  variable  in  size,  separating 
easily;  flesh  yellowish  gray;  tissue  thin,  translucent;  juice 
almost  transparent;  acidity  medium;  bitter  principle  lack- 
ing; juice  sacks  small,  short,  plump,  in  shape  resembling 
those  of  the  tangierine;  flavor  a  commingling  of  pomelo 
and  tangierine;  pith  small,  3-8  inch  in  diameter;  seeds 
three  to  twenty-three,  small,  slightly  winged  at  the  tip; 
cotyledons  white  or  green,  or  partly  green  and  partly 
white;  season  late;  a  good  keeper. 

This  variety  appears  to  be  a  well  marked  hybrid  be- 
tween the  tangierine  and  the  pomelo,  and  I  have  placed 
it  with  the  pomelos  because  the  fruit,  in  general  appear- 
ance, more  closely  resembles  that  fruit. 

It  originated  at  Nocatee,  Fla.,  and  Mr.  T.  J.  Watkins, 
the  owner  of  the  tree,  in  1902  wrote  the  following  notes 
regarding  it :  "The  original  tree  is  about  twenty  years  old, 
and  somewhat  larger  than  an  average  sour  orange  tree  of 
the  same  age.  It  is  a  hybrid  of  accidental  origin,  showing 
marks  of  grapefruit,  tangierine  and  bitter-sweet  orange. 
It  is  a  distinct  type,  having  fruit,  bloom,  wood,  habit  of 
growth  and  leaf  different  from  all  others,  and  is  as  easily 
recognizable  as  the  tangierine  or  grapefruit.  It  is  a  strong, 
vigorous  grower,  with  limbs  long  and  somewhat  slender. 
The  leaves  are  medium  size,  broad,  slightly  bent  upward 
from  midrib  and  slightly  curved  backward,  giving  a  shape 


POMELO    GROUP— VARIETIES.  123 

bearing  some  resemblance  to  an  apple  leaf,  but  in  color 
and  texture  it  resembles  the  leaf  of  the  common  orange. 
In  habit  of  growth  it  is  loose,  open- headed,  and  the  foliage 
less  dense  than  a  grapefruit  or  common  orange.  The  wood 
is  almost  thornless  and  the  tree  prolific,  being  laden  with 
fruit  every  year.  All  characteristics  of  the  tree  and  fruit 
cfire  retained  in  budded  trees.  *  *  *  *  Growth  of 
budded  trees  has  been  more  rapid  and  vigorous  than  that 
of  grapefruit  buds  under  similar  conditions. 


Fig.  24.    Pernambuco  Pomelo. 

"The  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  running  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  to  the  box,  in  color  a  clear,  pure  yellow;  has 
few  seeds,  many  of  the  fruits  being  entirely  seedless;  has 
loose  rind,  separating  from  the  fruit  a  little  less  easily 
than  tangierine's.  *  *  *  It  is  good  any  time  after  De- 
cember, and  will  hang  on  the  trees  until  August,  but 
reaches  full  maturity  about  April,  when  it  develops  a  rare 
combination  of  rich  and  delicate  flavor." 


124  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE, 

The  leaves  of  this  variety  are  different  from  those  of 
the  orange  or  grapefruit.  On  some  leaves  the  wings  are 
entirely  absent.  In  others  the  wing  is  cut  in  on  one  side 
only,  leaving  the  other  entire,  while  other  leaves  have  a 
well  marked  wing  on  both  sides. 

The  fruit  is  certainly  unique  and  interesting,  and  pos- 
sesses a  considerable  degree  of  merit. 

Pernambuco.  Form  oblate ;  size  3  34  x  4  3-4  inches, 
3  7-8  x  4  1-2  inches;  stem  stout;  calyx  medium  in  size; 
color  very  light  yellow;  rind  1-4  inch  thick,  compact, 
closely  attached,  smooth;  oil  cells  large,  sunken;  sections 
twelve,  uniform  in  size,  well  defined;  flesh  grayish  green; 
bitterness  well  marked;  acidity  and  sweetness  good;  char- 
acter well  marked;  seeds  sixty  to  seventy-five,  whitish, 
wedge-shaped,  irregular;  season  late. 

This  variety  was  imported  by  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  from  Pernambuco,  Brazil.  It  is  n 
variety  of  very  fine  quality. 

Royal.  Form 
slightly  oblate; 
size  3x31-2 
inches,  3x35-8 
inches ;  stem 
stout ;  color 
light  yellow ; 
rind  1-8  inch 
thick;  oil  cells 
small ;  sections 
eleven  or  twelve, 
small,  regular ; 
fl  e  s  h  grayish ; 

Fig.   25.      Duncan   Pomelos. 

green;  bitter  principle  almost  entirely  lacking;  acidity  me- 
dium ;  sweetness  good — can  be  eaten  from  the  hand  as  an 


POMELO    GROUP— VARIETIES.  125 

orange ;  seeds  forty,  grayish  in  color,  roundish  and  plump ; 
core  3-4  inch  in  diameter,  pithy;  season  medium  early. 

Mr.  E.  N.  Reasoner,  in  a  personal  letter,  says:  "The 
Royal  pomelo  was  brought  from  Cuba  (probably)  about 
thirty  years  ago,  and  is  a  large,  fine  tree  yet,  in  this  neigh- 
borhood. We  budded  from  it  and  named  it  in  1891 ;  listed 
it  in  1892." 

The  fruit  is  quite  desirable,  but  lacks  the  character 
of  the  pomelo.  The  tree  is  a  good  bearer,  probably  a 
hybrid. 

Standard.  (Indian  River.)  Form  oblate ;  size  large, 
41-4x5  inches;  stem  small;  base  slightly  creased;  color 
very  light  yellow;  rind  3-8  inch  thick;  oil  cells  large, 
slightly  depressed;  sections  thirteen,  large,  rather  irregu- 
lar; flesh  grayish  green;  bitterness  marked;  acidity  and 
sweetness  normal;  pulp  melting;  juice  plentiful;  juice 
sacks  large;  quality  excellent;  seeds  forty-nine  to  fifty- 
nine,  large,  long,  creased;  core  7-8  inch,  open;  season  Jan- 
uary-March. 

The  origin  of  this  variety  is  unknown.  C.  T.  McCarty, 
Eldred,  Fla.,  from  whom  specimens  were  first  received, 
wrote  as  follows  regarding  it:  "This  pomelo  is  known 
here  as  the  Standard,  or  Indian  River ;  I  don't  know  its 
origin.  It  came  here  from  Rockledge  sixteen  years  ago." 
(Or  about  1886.)  One  of  the  very  best  varieties. 

Triumph.  Form  oblate  or  slightly  oblate-oblong, 
slightly  flattened  at  base  and  apex ;  size  35-8x4  inches ; 
stem  small ;  color  light  yellow ;  rind  very  smooth,  1-8  inch 
thick;  oil  cells  slightly  depressed;  sections  eleven;  bitter 
principle  not  so  strongly  marked  as  in  some;  acidity  and 
sweetness  normal ;  juicy ;  pulp  melting ;  seeds  thirty-seven, 
medium,  plump,  roundish;  core  5-8  inch  in  diameter,  open 
or  pithy;  season  medium  early. 


126  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  original  tree  of  this  variety  grew  in  the  yard  of 
the  Orange  Grove  Hotel  at  Tampa,  but  was  killed  during 
the  severe  winter  of  1894-95.  Propagation  of  the  Triumph 
pomelo  was  commenced  in  1884. 

Walters.  (Walter.)  Form  oblate ;  size  33-4x4  7-8 
inches;  stem  small;  color  pale  yellow;  rind  smooth,  1-4 
inch  thick ;  oil  cells  almost  flush  with  the  surface ;  sections 
thirteen,  large;  bitter  principle  strongly  marked;  acidity 
and  sweetness  good;  quality  very  good;  seeds  fifty-eight, 
large,  plump,  wedge-shaped  or  irregular;  core  3-4  inch  in 
diameter,  solid;  season  medium. 

The  Walters  pomelo  was  introduced  in  1887  by  a  Mr. 
Walters,  assisted  by  Waite  Bros.  The  original  tree  grew 
near  the  village  of  Belleview,  Marion  County,  Fla. 

In  habit  of  growth  this  tree  very  closely  resembles 
the  Hall,  and  by  some  they  are  thought  to  be  the  same, 
but  the  origin  of  the  two  is  entirely  different  as  may  be 
noted  from  the  descriptions.  The  seeds  show  a  distinct 
varietal  difference. 


Photo   by  Ensminger. 

Figr.  26.     Walters  Pomelo  in  Fruit. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 


SHADDOCK  GROUP— VARIETIES. 

Mammoth.  Form  oblate ;  size  large,  47-8x6  inches, 
or  larger;  color  lemon  yellow;  apex  rounded  or  flattened, 
marked  with  a  large  scar;  base  gradually  rounded,  with 
a  broad  shallowed  depression,  not  creased;  calyx  large, 
irregular;  rind  3-4  inch  thick,  fungous;  oil  cells  large,  con- 
spicuous, globular;  flesh  coarse,  white;  juice  sacks  large, 
pointed,  with  the  membrane  thick;  pulp  not  melting,  but 
inclined  to  be  tough;  acid  and  bitter,  sweetness  slightly 
developed;  flavor  sweetish  bitter;  pith  open;  sections  not 
covered  with  membrane  on  the  inner  edge;  seeds  present, 
large,  wedge-shaped,  twelve  in  number;  season  winter. 

Pink.  Form  oblate- 
pyriform,  necked  ; 
size  large,  6x65-8 
inches ;  color  lemon 
yellow;  apex  slightly 
depressed,  scarred ; 
base  depressed,  slight- 
ly ridged;  calyx  set 
in  a  depression,  seg- 
ments blunt ;  rind 
thick,  1-2  to  3-4  inch, 
fungous ;  oil  cells 
large,  conspicuous ; 
sections  twelve,  irreg- 
ular in  size,  distinct, 

separated  by  thick,  leathery  partitions;  flesh  coarse,  pink 
or  reddish  in  color;  juice  sacks  large,  spindle-shaped,  1-2 


Fig.  27.  Cross-section  of  Pink  Shaddock. 
(About  one-third  natural  size.) 


128  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

to  1  1-4  inches  long,  not  tightly  fastened  together;  juice 
fairly  abundant,  not  colored,  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
flesh  confined  to  the  tissue ;  pulp  not  melting,  rather  tough ; 
flavor  bitter  and  acid  with  some  sweetness;  pith  large, 
1  1-4  inches  across,  not  lined  with  membrane ;  seeds  pres- 
ent, few,  three  to  seven,  medium  size,  3-8  x  1-2  inch,  blunt, 
rather  oval,  pointed;  season  winter. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

KUMQUAT  GROUP— VARIETIES. 

Nagami      f  Oblong,      olive-        ,. 


shaped).    Tree   dwarf,  eight   to 
twelve       feet,      bushy;      young 
branches  somewhat  angled,  light 
green ;  leaves  1  1-2  x  3, 1-2  or  3-8 
x  1  1-4  inches,  lanceolate,  apex 
obtuse;   base  acute  or   obtuse; 
margin     crenate     down     about 
half     way     from     the     apex; 
veins         inconspicuous,        sur- 
face dark  green,  glossy;  lower 
lighter;  borne  on  rather  stout, 
usually  very  slightly  margined 
petioles,  1-4  to  5-8  inch  in  length. 
Fruit  small;  obovate  or  oblong; 
1  1-4  x  3-4  inches,  11-2x1  inch, 
1  3-4x1 1-8  inches,  1  3-4  x  1  3-10 
inches,     golden     yellow;     stem 
short;  calyx  small;  rind  smooth, 
aromatic,     spicy;     oil     glands 
large;   juice  acid,   sparse;   sec- 
tions usually  five;  seeds  two  1o 
five,  oval,  1-2  inch  long,  green- 
ish; cotyledons  two,  green;  sea- 
son   October-January. 

Marumi  (Round).  Tree  simi- 
lar to  Nagami,  except  that  it  is 
slightly  fhornv,  and  has 


Fig-.  28.     Nagami  and  Marumi 
Kutnquat*.      (Xjitnnil  size.) 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


leaves  somewhat  smaller  and  rounder  at  the  apex.  Leaves 
oval;  apex  obtuse;  base  obtuse;  margin  crenate  half  way 
down  the  length;  veins  slightly  more  conspicuous  than  in 
Nagami,  borne  on  short,  rigid,  inconspicuously  winged  peti- 
oles, 1-4  to  1-2  inch  in  length.  Fruit  spherical  or  some- 
what oblate,  1  to  11-4  inches  in  diameter;  golden  yellow, 
short  stalked;  calyx  small;  rind  smooth,  thin,  spicy  to 
the  taste  and  aromatic  when  bruised;  oil  cells  large; 
pulp  sparse;  juice  acid;  sections  four  to  seven;  seeds 
small,  oval,  greenish,  one  to  three  in  number;  cotyledons 
two,  greenish;  season,  same  as  Nagami. 

When  eaten  raw  both  Nagami  and  Marumi  have  a  very 
pleasant  flavor  or  combination  of  flavors.  The  juice  is 
acid  ;  the  rind  has  an  agreeable  spicy  taste  ;  while  the  soft, 
white,  granular  inner  portion  of  the  rind  is  decidedly 
sweet.  There  is  a  slight  difference  in  flavor  between  the 
two  varieties,  but  it  is  better  determined  by  taste  than 
described  in  words.  Of  the  two,  Nagami  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  the  more  desirable,  though  among  growers 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  The  fruit  of  the  Nagami 
is  more  regular  in  size  on  young  plants.  Large  sized 
plants  of  both  varieties  bear  about  the  same  amount  of 
fruit  of  uniform  size  and  both  are  very  prolific. 

Sour.  Form  rounded  oblate  ;  size  small,  11-8x1  1-4 
inches;  color  deep  orange  red;  apex  flattened;  base 
rounded;  stem  small;  calyx  small,  bluntly  five  pointed; 
rind  smooth,  very  thin,  easily  separated  from  the  pulp; 
oil  cells  of  medium  size,  flush  with  the  surface;  sections 
six  or  seven,  clearly  defined,  separating  readily  from  each 
other,  flesh  fine  grained,  orange  colored;  juice  sacks  small; 
juice  abundant,  colored;  pulp  melting,  free  from  rag;  acid- 
ity very  strong,  but  pleasant;  pith  small,  rather  open; 


KUMQUAT  GROUP—  VARIETIES. 


seeds  oval,  smooth,  plump,  two  to  four  in  number,  3-8  x 
1-4  inch  ;  season  November-December. 

The  scent  of  the  freshly  cut  fruit  is  very  much  like 
that  of  the  Mandarin  oranges.  The  leaves  are  thin,  broadly 
oval  in  outline.  The  variety'  is  subject  to  scab  and  is  of 
little  importance  except  as  an  ornamental.  Buds  were 
received  from  Dr.  F.  W.  Inman,  of  Winter  Haven,  Fla., 
and  from  these  the  present  specimens  at  the  Florida  Ex- 
periment Station  were  grown.  I  have  been  in  doubt  in 
placing  it  with  the  kumquats,  but  have  been  unable  to 
make  a  better  disposition  of  it. 


CHAPTER    XXL 
CITRON   GROUP— VARIETIES. 

Lemon.  (Sorrento).  Form  oblong;  size  variable, 
large  specimens,  7  3-4  x  5  inches  or  larger,  and  weighing 
three  to  eight  pounds;  color  bright  lemon  yellow;  apex 
nippled,  nipple  small,  abrupt;  base  rounded;  rind  pleas- 
antly aromatic,  rather  smooth,  with  slight,  broad  eleva- 
tions, 1  to  1 1-4  inches  thick ;  inner  rind  white,  coarse,  with 
very  little  bitterness;  oil  cells  slightly  elevated  or  flush 
with  the  surface;  sections  twelve  in  number,  clearly  de- 
fined, the  partitions  thick;  pulp  bitter,  lacking  in  juice; 
juice  sacks  narrow,  elongated,  pointed;  pith  small;  seeds 
present,  small,  oval,  blunt ;  fruiting  throughout  the  whole 
year  in  favorable  sections. 

The  Lemon  citron  is  an  imported  variety  now  grown 
in  California  and  to  a  less  extent  in  Florida. 

Lyman.  Form  oval-oblong;  size  medium;  color 
orange  yellow;  quality  good.  Cat.  Fla.  Hort.  Soc.,  1902. 

Orange.  Fruit  somewhat  cone-shaped,  more  pointed 
than  common  variety;  color  that  of  an  ordinary  orange; 
rind  cream  colored ;  pulp  yellowish ;  rind  sweet  and  highly 
aromatic;  fruit  possesses  less  bitterness  than  the  common 
variety;  tree  a  small,  stiff,  erect  grower.  (Moore  from 
Fla.  Fr.  Gr.  Association  Report.) 


H 


O   ^ 

a 
o 


CHAPTER    XXII. 


LEMON   GROUP— VARIETIES. 

Eureka.  Form  oblong;  size  medium,  27-8x2  inches, 
3x21-4  inches;  color  lemon  yellow ;  apex  nippled,  the  nip- 
ple small  and  abrupt;  base  slightly  tapered,  frequently 
oblique;  calyx  of  medium  size,  four  to  five  pointed,  points 
blunt;  rind  smooth,  1-4  inch  thick  uncured,  1-8  inch  thick 
when  cured,  sweet;  oil  cells 
quite  large,  depressed;  sections 
ten,  well  defined  and  regular; 
flesh  fine  grained,  pale  grayish 
yellow  in  color;  juice  sacks 
small,  spindle-shaped,  elong- 
ated; juice  abundant,  clear 
pulp  melting;  acid  pure  and 
strong;  flavor  excellent;  pith 
small,  1-4  inch  across;  seeds 
present,  but  mostly  abortive, 
elongated,  somewhat  wedge- 
shaped,  small. 

The  tree  is  half  dwarf  in 
habit  and  comparatively  free 
from  thorns.  The  fruit  keeps 
well  and  is  one  of  the  best  var- 
ieties grown  in  California.  It  has  a  tendency  to 
bear  the  fruit  at  the  end  of  the  branches,  and  is  poorly 
covered  with  foliage.  It  is  .an  extremely  prolific  variety. 
It  was  introduced  by  Mr.  T.  A.  Garey,  of  Los  Angeles, 
Cal.,  and  originated  by  C.  R.  Workman  at  the  same  place, 
the  seed  from  which  it  grew  having  been  imported  from 
Hamburg  in  1872. 


Fig-.  29.  Ever-bearing  Lemon. 
(About  one-half  natural  size.) 


1^0  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Everbearing.  Form  oval,  pointed  at  both  ends;  size 
medium,  39-16  x  2  inches;  color  yellow;  apex  pointed, 
point  about  5-8  inch  long;  base  elongated,  somewhat  ridged 
about  the  calyx;  calyx  small;  rind  rough,  almost  warty; 
when  uncured  3-16  inch  thick;  oil  cells  depressed,  large; 
sections  not  clearly  defined,  eleven  in  number,  regular; 
flesh  fine  grained,  greenish  gray  in  color;  juice  sacks 
elongated  and  narrow;  juice  plentiful,  colorless;  pulp 
melting;  acid  fairly  good;  flavor  fair;  pith  small,  about 
3-16  inch  across;  seeds  present,  of  medium  size,  nineteen 
in  number  shape  oval,  pointed;  season,  all  the  year  round. 

The  Everbearing  lemon  is  too  rough  and  contains  too 
many  seeds  to  make  it  a  desirable  market  variety.  It  is 
quite  valuable  for  domestic  use  and  especially  so  as  it 
is  always  in  flower  and  fruit.  It  has  a  strong  tendency 
to  produce  an  abundance  of  water  sprouts  and  suckers, 
hence  forms  a  bushy  growth.  It  has  been  grown  in  Florida 
for  many,  many  years,  and  is  probably  a  Spanish  intro- 
duction. 


Fig.   30.     Lisbon  Lemon,  and  cross-section  of  uncured  specimen. 
(Five-eighths  natural  size.) 

Genoa.  Form  oblong,  pointed  at  both  ends ;  size  med- 
ium, 33-8x2  inches,  3  5-16  x  2  5-16  inches ;  color  lemon 
yellow,  bright;  apex  nippled,  nipple  small  and  rather 


LEMON   GROUP— VARIETIES.  137 

sharp  pointed;  base  necked;  calyx  large,  four  to  five 
pointed,  points  rounded ;  rind  smooth,  sweet,  1-4  inch  thick 
or  slightly  more  uncured,  1-8  inch  thick  cured;  oil  cells 
small,  fairly  conspicuous;  sections  seven  to  ten,  regular; 
flesh  fine  grained,  grayish  yellow  in  color;  juice  sacks 
fairly  large,  spindle-shaped;  juice  abundant,  clear;  acid 
clear  and  strong;  flavor  excellent;  pith  very  small,  8 
inch  or  less ;  seeds  few,  abortive,  oblong,  small. 

The  tree  is  thornless,  dwarf  in  habit  and  the  fruit 
keeps  excellently.  Uncured  specimens  when  placed  in 
water,  sink  about  four-fifths  of  the  diameter  beneath  the 
surface,  when  cured,  five-sixths  of  the  distance  or  more. 
The  Genoa  lemon  was  imported  from  Genoa  by  Don  Jose 
Rubio,  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  and  from  thence  into  Florida 
by  Mr.  A.  I.  Bidwell  about  1881. 

Lisbon.  Form  ablong ;  size  medium,  3  1-4x2  1-8  inches, 
color  lemon  yellow;  apex  nippled;  base  somewhat  necked; 
calyx  quite  large  and  prominent;  rind  fairly  smooth, 
sweet  to  the  taste,  1-8  inch  thick  in  cured  specimens,  1-4 
inch  thick  in  uncured;  oil  cells  small  and  prominent;  sec- 
tions ten  to  eleven,  small,  regular  in  size ;  flesh  fine  grained, 
grayish  yellow;  juice  sacks  elongated,  narrow,  spindle- 
shaped;  juice  abundant;  pulp  melting;  acid  clear,  pure, 
strong;  flavor  excellent;  pith  small,  1-4  inch  or  less;  seeds 
one  to  five,  usually  abortive,  oval,  somewhat  plano-convex. 

This  variety  is  a  strong,  vigorous  grower,  prolific, 
thorny  and  well  covered  with  foliage.  The  fruit  is  very 
uniform  in  size,  ripens  evenly  and  keeps  well.  The  Lisbon 
lemon  was  imported  from  Portugal  and  was  first  grown 
at  Riverside,  Cal.,  by  D.  N.  Burnham. 

Ponderosa.  Form  necked,  oblong,  obovate  pyriform ; 
size  large  4  3-8  x  4  1-8  inches;  color  lemon  yellow;  apex 
flat  or  roundish  with  a  very  slight  indication  of  a  nipple; 


138 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


base  necked,  rather  rough,  elevated  about  the  calyx,  which 
is  quite  depressed;  rind  rough,  1-2  inch  thick;  oil  cells 
large,  balloon  shaped  or  oblong;  sections  twelve,  distinct, 
separating  tissues  thick ;  flesh  grayish,  identical  in  color 
with  that  of  the  pomelo;  coarse  grained;  juice  sacks  large, 
spindle-shaped  or  cylindrical  and  blunt;  juice  plentiful, 
colorless;  pulp  melting;  acid  quite  strong;  flavor  agree- 
able, not  exactly  like  a  lemon;  pith  small;  seeds  present, 
oval,  blunt  pointed,  somewhat  wedge-shaped,  twenty-five 
in  number,  of  medium  size;  season  winter. 

This  lemon  appears  to  resemble  the  pomelo  and  there 
is  a  possibility  of  its  containing  some  of  the  pomelo 
strain.  The  tree  has  not  been  seen  but  the  leaves  are 
rounded  at  the  apex  and  wingless.  This  variety  has  been 
quite  extensively  advertised  as  a  novelty  by  northern 

nurserymen      for 
pot  culture. 

Rough  (Florida 
Rough,  French.)— 
Form  variable, 
slightly  obovate  or 
round  ovate ;  size 
medium  to  large, 
2  7-16  x  2  5-16  in-, 
3}  x  3  j  in. ;  color 
lemon  yellow  , 
sometimes  shaded 
with  a  reddish 
tinge;  apex  rougb, 
with  a  slightly 
depressed  ring  in 
which  is  set  a  roughened  elevation  having  three 
or  four  ridges ;  base  rough  and  elevated  so  as  to  surround 


Fig.  31.     Rough  Lemon  Fruit. 
(One-half  natural  size.) 


LEMON  GROUP— VARIETIES.  139 

the  calyx;  rind  decidedly  rough  and  warty,  1-4  inch  thick; 
oil  cells  large,  balloon-shaped  or  globular,  frequently  ex- 
tending entirely  through  the  rind;  sections  well  defined, 
nine  to  twelve  in  number,  separating  freely  from  each  other 
and  from  the  rind;  flesh  coarse  grained,  greenish  yellow 
in  color;  juice  sacks  large,  broad  and  blunt;  juice  abund- 
ant, clear;  pulp  melting;  acid  quite  strong;  flavor  agree- 
able; pith  open,  1-2  to  1  inch  across,  filled  with  white 
strings  of  tissue;  seeds  small,  full,  plump,  blunt  pointed, 
twenty-three  in  number;  season  winter. 

This  variety  of  lemon  is  presumably  of  Spanish  intro- 
duction and  has  become  naturalized  in  the  forests  of 
southern  Florida.  It  is  somewhat  useful  for  home  con- 
sumption, but  as  a  commercial  variety  it  is  worthless. 
The  rough  lemon  is  quite  extensively  used  as  a  stock  upon 
which  to  work  different  varieties  of  citrus  trees.  When 
growing  apart  it  reaches  a  height  of  upwards  of  twenty-five 
feet,  the  bark  of  the  tree  being  brownish  gray  and  smooth. 

Sicily.  Form  oblong ;  size  medium,  21-2x3  1-4  inches ; 
color  light  lemon  yellow,  bright;  apex  nippled,  nipple 
short,  abrupt;  base  rounded;  calyx  rather  large;  rind  thin, 
smooth,  sweet;  oil  cells  usually  flush  with  the  surface; 
sections  distinctly  marked,  quite  regular,  twelve  in  num- 
ber; flesh  grayish  yellow  in  color,  fine  grained;  juice  sacks 
small,  spindle-shaped ;  juice  abundant ;  pulp  melting ;  acid 
strong,  clear;  flavor  good;  pith  small ;  seeds  twelve  in  num- 
ber, of  medium  size. 

Sweet.  Size  very  small ;  form  much  flattened ;  color 
rusty,  grayish  yellow ;  instead  of  eye,  a  marked  nipple  set 
in  a  deep  cavity ;  stem  inserted  in  a  slight  depression ; 
thickness  of  skin,  2-16  inch ;  longitudinal  diameter,  2  inches, 
transverse,  2  1-8  inches ;  color  of  flesh,  dark  lemon ;  grain  of 
pulp  coarse;  juice  sweet  and  insipid,  with  slight  lemon 
flavor.  Curious,  but  unworthy  of  cultivation.  (Moore.) 


140 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


Placed  here  provisionally;  it  should,  doubtless,  be 
grouped  differently. 

Villafranca.  Form  oval-oblong ;  size  medium  to  large, 
3x2  5-16  inches ;  color  lemon  yellow,  bright ;  apex  pointed, 
blunt,  abrupt,  about  1-2  inch  long ;  base  rounded ;  calyx  of 
medium  size,  segments  not  distinctly  marked ;  rind  smooth, 
1-8  inch  thick  when  cured ;  oil  cells  depressed  or  flush  with 
the  surface;  sections  eleven,  well  defined  and  regular; 
flesh  fine  grained,  light  grayish  yellow  in  color;  juice  sacks 
slender,  pointed;  juice  colorless,  abundant;  pulp  melting; 
acid  clear,  pure,  strong;  flavor  good;  pith  small,  1-4  inch 
across  or  less;  seeds  present,  thirty  in  number,  of  medium 
size,  oval,  pointed. 

The  tree  has  but  few  thorns,  is  a  good  grower  and  very 
productive.  The  variety  was  imported  by  General  Sanford 
and  is,  perhaps  the  most  commonly  planted  variety  in 
Florida. 


Fig.  32.     View  in  a  Lemon  Grove,  Corona,  Cal. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 
LIME  GROUP— VARIETIES. 


.Fiff.    33.      Mexican   Lime. 
('Jwo-thirds  natural   size. 

Mexican.  Form  oblong  or  oval;  size  small,  2  1-16 
x  13-4  inches,  23-8  x  21-16  inches,  very  variable;  color 
light  lemon  yellow;  apex  usually  smooth,  sometimes 
slightly  nippled  and  ridged,  the  nipple  pointed  or  blunt, 
short  and  small ;  base  usually  smooth,  sometimes  elevated 
and  ridged;  rind  smooth,  very  thin;  oil  cells  very  numer- 
ous, usually  flush  with  the  surface,  the  larger  ones  some- 
times depressed;  sections  distinctly  marked,  dividing  tis- 
sue thin,  ten  in  number  and  regular  in  size;  flesh  fine 
grained,  light  grayish  green  in  color;  juice  sacks  small, 
spindle-shaped;  juice  plentiful,  colorless  or  translucent; 
pulp  melting;  acid  very  strong;  flavor  distinctly  of  the 
lime;  pith  open,  small;  seeds  few  or  none,  pointed,  broad 
and  flat,  or  slightly  wedge-shaped,  3-8  to  1-2  x  3-16  inch; 
season  all  the  year  round. 


142  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  Mexican  lime  was  probably  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards  and  grows  wild  in  the  forests  of  southern  Flor- 
ida. Size  and  quality  of  the  fruit  is  very  variable  as  it  is 
propagated  entirely  from  seeds.  The  tree  grows  as  a 
shrubby  bush,  ten  to  fifteen  feet  high,  well  provided  with 
small,  sharp  spines.  The  variety  might  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  proper  selection  and  propagation,  but  at  present 
the  name  does  not  stand  for  any  single  well  marked  var- 
iety, but  rather  for  a  conglomeration  of  varieties  for  which 
the  description  given  above  may  be  considered  fairly  ac 
curate. 

Rangpur  (Rungpur,  Rungpore).  Form  roundish,  ob- 
late, or  tending  toward  obovate,  occasionally  somewhat 
necked ;  size  medium,  2x21-8  inches,  25-8x2  5-8  inches ; 
color  orange  red;  apex  sometimes  flat,  frequently  with  a 
tendency  to  become  distinctly  uippled — nipple,  if  present, 
small,  sharp  and  short ;  base  sometimes  quite  smooth,  occas- 
ionally corrugated  or  ridged,  sometimes  quite  rough,  espec- 
ially when  necked;  calyx  depressed  or  projecting  slightly 
around  the  point  of  attachment;  rind  usually  fairly 
smooth,  inclining  to  be  rough  about  the  base  and  apex, 
thin,  1-8  inch  or  less  in  thickness,  separating  readily  from 
the  pulp,  coloring  irregularly  in  the  ripening  process.; 
oil  cells  quite  conspicuous,  the  primary  ones  depressed; 
sections  seven  in  number,  fairly  regular  in  size,  separating 
readily  from  each  other  and  from  the  rind;  flesh  coarse 
grained,  deep  orange  in  color;  juice  sacks  large,  long,  1-2 
to  3-4  inch,  narrow  and  pointed;  juice  plentiful,  slightly 
colored  (orange)  ;  pulp  melting;  acid  clear,  pure,  strong; 
flavor  distinct,  not  at  all  like  a  lime,  very  pleasant  and 
agreeable;  pith  small,  open,  1-4  inch  in  diameter;  seeds 
present,  fourteen  in  number,  ovate,  scarcely  pointed,  3-8 
inch  long  by  1-4  inch  wide;  cotyledons  greenish;  season, 


LIME  GROUP— VARIETIES.  143 

autumn  and  winter,  remaining  on  the  trees  well  on  towards 
spring. 

The  Rangpur  lime  was  grown  from  seed,  by  Eeasoner 
Bros.,  Oneco,  Fla.,  obtained  from  northwestern  India. 
The  variety  appears  to  have  come  true  from  seed  and  seems 
to  be  identical  with  the  variety  described  by  Bonavia. 
The  tree  has  very  much  the  habit  of  the  lime,  but  in  nearly 
all  respects  the  tree  and  fruit  is  distinct  from  the  true  lime 
group.  By  Bonavia  it  has  been  classed  with  the  Indian 
group,  "Suntara,"  which  appears  to  be  closely  related  to 
our  mandarin  group.  It  has  been  placed  with  the  limes 
provisionally. 

Tahiti.  Form  broadly  oval ;  size  large,  3x2  5-8  inches ; 
color  lemon  yellow;  apex  nippled,  the  nipple  broad  at  the 
base,  abrupt  and  sharp  pointed;  base  rounded,  slightly 
elevated  about  the  calyx,  creased  or  ridged;  calyx  adher- 
ing firmly  to  the  fruit,  blunt  pointed;  rind  smooth,  thin, 
1-16  inch  when  cured;  oil  cells  small,  slightly  depressed; 
sections  well  defined,  irregular,  ten  in  number;  flesh  fine 
grained,  greenish  in  color;  juice  sacks  cylindrical,  narrow 
and  pointed;  juice  plentiful,  almost  colorless;  pulp  melt- 
ing ;  acid  pure,  strong ;  flavor  agreeable,  distinctly  "lime" ; 
pith  open,  small;  seeds  none;  season  fall  and  winter. 

The  Tahiti  lime  grows  as  a  round-topped  tree,  twelve 
to  fifteen  feet  in  height.  The  fruit  is  produced  singly  or 
in  clusters  of  two  or  three,  usually  well  covered  by  the  fol- 
iage. Branches  are  inclined  to  droop.  The  undesirable 
feature  of  the  variety  in  Florida  is  that  the  fruit  tends  to 
decay  on  the  trees  about  the  time  it  matures. 


144 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURK. 


Fig-.  34. 


Cross-section  of  Tahiti  Lime. 
(Natural    size.) 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 
ORIGINATING  NEW  VARIETIES. 

The  day  has  come  when  a  knowledge  of  the  art  and 
science  of  crossing  plants  should  be  as  much  a  part  of  a 
horticulturist's  education  as  a  knowledge  of  the  art  and 
science  of  budding  and  grafting.  So  great  are  the  improve- 
ments, along  certain  lines,  which  may  be  brought  about 
in  citrus  fruits  through  cross-pollination  and  consequent 
cross-fertilization,  that  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to 
give  specific  directions  for  the  use  of  those  who  desire  to 
experiment  in  this  interesting  and  inviting  field.  The  ope- 
rations necessary  for  the  performance  of  the  work  are  so 
simple  that  any  novice  may  perform  them.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  a  knowledge  of  the  methods,  a  little  patience 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  care. 

While  something  may  be  done  in  improving  varieties 
by  bud-selection,  still  any  radical  improvements  in  the 
fruits  under  discussion  must  be  brought  about  by  raising, 
fruiting  and  selecting  seedlings.  The  seeds  used  may  be 
selected  from  fruits  of  desirable  trees  or  they  may  be  pro- 
duced as  a  result  of  hand-pollination.  The  method  of 
selecting  and  propagating  desirable  seedlings  is  the  one 
by  which  all  of  the  varieties  now  cultivated  commercially 
in  the  State  where  produced,  and  it  is,  perhaps,  not  too 
much  to  say  that  their  origin  has  been  in  a  large  measure 
due  to  chance.  If  attempts  are  made  at  improvement  by 
cross  pollination,  the  parent  plants  may  be  chosen  at  will, 
and  there  is  always  a  strong  probability  of  the  offspring 
inheriting  some  of  the  desirable  characteristics  of  the 
parent  varieties.  After  persistent  efforts  for  a  number  of 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


years,  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  desired  end,  held  in  view 
from  the  first,  may  be  attained  in  the  ideal  fruit.  The 
larger  the  number  of  crosses  made  the  greater  are  the 
assurances  of  success.  If  a  desirable  variety  is  not  secured 
in  the  first  generations,  it  is  best  to  continue  the  work  by 
crossing  one  of  the  parents  on  the  cross  or  hybrid  already 
obtained. 

When  seeds  form  as  a  result  of  cross-pollination  and 
plants  are  successfully  raised,  the  offspring  is  termed  either 
a  cross  or  a  hybrid.  It  is  a  cross  if  the  seedling  is  formed 
as  a  result  of  the  union  of  the  elements  of  two  varieties  of 
the  same  species,  while  a  hybrid  is  the  plant  resulting  from 
the  union  of  representatives  of  two  distinct  species.  For 
example,  if  the  pollen  of  the  Duncan  pomelo  is  placed  on 
the  stigma  of  the  Triumph  pomelo  and  following  this 
fecundation  takes  place,  seed  forms  and  a  plant  is  raised, 
this  plant  is  a  cross.  But  if  the  pollen  of  the  Duncan 
pomelo  is  placed  on  the  stigma  of  a  Lemon  citron  and  as 
a  result  a  seedling  is  raised,  it  will  be  a  hybrid.  In  the 
first  case,  the  two  pomelos  belong  to  the  same  species, 
C.  deoumana,  while  in  the  latter  case  we  have  representa- 
tives of  two  species,  C.  decumana  and  C.  Medica.  By  some 
plant  breeders  these  two  terms,  cross  and  hybrid,  have  been 
discarded  and  the  term  hybrid  used  in  the  place  of  them, 
but  the  usage  as  given  above  is  the  long  established  one 
and  the  best  to  follow. 

The  Parts  of  the  Flower.  A  knowledge  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  citrus  flower  on  the  part  of  the  operator  is  in* 
dispensable.  On  examining  a  flower  the  first  part  noticed 
is  the  large,  white,  showy  portion,  usually  composed  of 
five  parts.  This  is  the  corolla,  and  each  part  or  segment 
is  termed  a  petal.  (Fig.  35  E.)  Outside  the  corolla  at 
its  base  is  a  much  smaller,  yellowish  or  greenish,  somewhat 


Plate  XII. 


Pollinating1  Outfit. 

Pin-Scalpel;  Brush  and  handle;   Tweezers;   Surgeon's  scissors;  Phial 
of   pollen;    Hand-lens. 


148 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


cupped  part,  the  calyx.  In  the  calyx  of  some  flowers  five 
points  may  be  made  out  (oftener  only  three  or  four) ,  which 
represent  the  parts  of  the  calyx,  in  the  citrus  flower  fused 
into  one.  These  parts  are  each  known  as  a  sepal.  The 
calyx  and  corolla  constitute  the  floral  envelopes  or  protec- 
tive part  of  the  flower. 

Inside  the  corolla,  standing  up  in  a  ring,  are  the 
stamens  (Fig.  35  D.).  Each  consists  of  a  white  stem  or 
filament,  surmounted  by  a  yellow,  pointed  knob,  the  anther. 
If  the  anthers  are  ripe,  a  yellow  dust,  the  pollen,  will  be 
found  on  them.  The  stamens  are  usually  about  twenty  in 
number  and  the  filaments  are  more  or  less  united,  so  as 
to  form  a  ring.  The  filaments  of  C.  trifoliata  are  not  joined 
together. 


Fig".  35.  Vertical  section  through  a  citrus  flower,  enlarged  about 
two  and  one-half  times.  P,  Peduncle,  expanding  into  the  calyx  just 
above.  E,  petals.  D,  Stamens.  F,  Filaments.  A,  Anther.  B,  Pistil. 
S,  Stigma.  B,  Style.  O,  Ovules. 

Within  the  ring  of  stamens  the  pistil  (Fig.  35,  B.) 
rises  straight  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  flower.  Its  upper 
knob-like  end,  the  stigma,  rises  above,  or  to,  the  level  of 
the  stamens.  Below  the  stigma  is  a  rather  thick,  straight 


ORIGINATING  NEW  VARIETIES.  149 

part,  the  style,  joined  to  a  round,  greenish  body,  the  ovary, 
at  its  base.  This  ovary,  when  fully  developed,  forms  the 
fruit.  If  we  cut  through  the  ovary  from  top  to  bottom 
with  a  sharp  knife  and  examine  the  section  with  a  hand- 
lens,  a  number  of  small,  light-colored  bodies,  attached 
along  the  central  column,  may  be  made  out.  These  are 
the  ovules  (Fig.  35,  O.),  which,  after  being  fertilized,  grow 
and  form  the  seed.  The  stamens  and  pistil  are  called  the 
essential  organs  of  the  flower,  because  they  are  the  parts 
which  form  the  seed  for  the  reproduction  of  the  tree.  It 
is  with  them  that  one  making  crosses  is  most  concerned, 
for  through  their  agency  seed  is  produced  and  through 
them  only  can  the  work  be  done. 

As  already  indicated  the  ovary  grows  and  forms  the 
fruit  while  the  ovules  develop  into  the  seed.  But  seed-form- 
ation does  not  commence  until  the  ovules  are  acted  upon 
by  the  pollen.  When  the  anthers  are  ripe  the  pollen  is 
discharged  through  slits  in  the  sides.  The  stigma  must 
also  ripen  or  become  receptive  to  the  pollen.  This  condi- 
tion in  citrus  flowers  is  shown  by  its  viscid  appearance  and 
by  its  being  covered  with  a  whitish,  sticky  fluid.  Then  if 
the  pollen  be  placed  upon  the  stigma  it  is  held  there  by 
the  adhesive  surface  and  germinates,  each  pollen  grain 
sending  out  a  little  slender  tube,  which  grows  through  the 
style  and  finds  its  way  into  the  ovary,  where  the  contents 
are  emptied  into  the  ovules.  Then  fertilization  or  fecunda- 
tion is  accomplished  and  seed-development  begins. 

MODE     OF    OPERATION. 

Having  now  become  acquainted  with  the  different 
parts  of  the  citrus  flower  and  their  uses,  the  operator  is 
ready  for  the  actual  work. 

If  any  considerable  amount  of  pollination,  i.  e.,  trans 


150  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

f  erring  the  pollen  from  the  anther  to  the  stigma,  is  to  be 
done,  the  pollen  to  be  used  should  be  collected  and  prepared 
some  time  before.  It  has  generally  been  observed  that  the 
anthers  of  citrus  flowers  open  and  expose  their  pollen  very 
shortly  or  within  a  few  hours  after  the  flowers  open.  In 
some  cases  the  anthers  are  ripe  as  soon  as  they  are  exposed, 
by  the  separation  of  the  petals  enclosing  them.  Hence  in 
collecting  pollen,  one  may  be  quite  certain  of  securing  ma- 
ture pollen  from  flowers  which  are  just  on  the  point  of 
opening.  It  will  not  do  to  take  pollen  from  open  flowers, 
for  some  insect  may  have  made  a  visit  to  them  and  depos- 
ited foreign  pollen  in  some  part  of  the 
flower.  This  pollen  might  unwittingly  be 
gathered  and  used  by  the  operator.  Gather 
the  flowers  in  paper  sacks  and  afterwards 
spread  them  out  in  a  thin  layer  on  a 
j  smooth  sheet  of  paper  in  a  warm  dry 
place,  where  the  air  is  still.  In  two  or 
three  days  the  flowers  will  dry  and  shrivel ; 
nil  the  anthers  will  open  and  the  pollen 
will  be  liberated.  Then  carefully  gather 

Fig.  36.     Sack  ready,, 

for  covering  poin-  the  whole  mass  and  replace  it  in  the  sacks. 

nated    flowers.       T^       , 

li,acn  one  should  be  labeled.  For  use  in 
the  field,  the  dried  flowers  and  pollen  together  should  be 
placed  in  wide-mouthed,  loosely-stopped  phials.  These 
should  be  labeled  with  the  name  of  the  variety  of  pollen 
and  the  date  of  collection.  (Plate  XII.) 

A  sufficient  number  of  bags  should  be  provided  with 
which  to  cover  the  flowers  to  prevent  insects  from  visit- 
ing them.  For  this  purpose  we  have  found  two-pound 
manilla  bags,  such  as  grocers  use,  the  most  convenient. 
These  should  be  prepared  by  punching  a  hole  through  the 
two  edges  while  the  sacks  are  still  flat.  In  the  hole  in 


ORIGINATING  NEW  VARIETIES. 


151 


one  of  the  edges  tie  a  string  about  ten  inches  long  and 
draw  one  end  through  the  hole  in  the  other  edge,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  36. 

Every  precaution  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  access 
of  foreign  pollen  to  the  stigma  of  the  flower  to  be  operated 
upon.  It  is  best  to  select  the  flowers  near  the  tips  of 
branches  as  it  is  much  easier  to  cover  them  with  the  bags. 
Remove  all  open  flowers  and  those  which  are  immature. 
No  flower  should  be  worked  upon  after  it  is  open.  Choose 
them  in  the  stage  shown  in  fig.  37,  B.  just  before  they  are 


Fig.   37.     A,   Open  citrus  flower,   showing  petals,   stamens  and  pistil. 
B,  Bud  at  the  right  stage  for  emasculating.     C,  An  emascu- 
lated flower. 

ready  to  open.    If  possible,  select  the  blossoms  so  as  to  be 
able  to  place  a  number  under  the  same  sack. 

In  performing  the  work,  gently  hold  the  unopened 
flower-bud  in  the  fingers.  With  a  pair  of  tweezers  care- 
fully pry  the  petals  apart  so  as  to  expose  the  anthers  and 
stigma.  If  the  flower  is  in  the  right  stage,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  stigma  is  on  a  level  with  the  anthers  or  slightly 
above  them  and  that  its  surface  is  viscid  or  sticky,  as 
already  noted.  Then  remove  the  anthers  by  catching  the 
filaments  some  distance  below  them  and  nipping  them  off, 
or  a  pair  of  surgeons'  scissors  (Plate  XII)  may  be  used. 
This  operation  of  removing  the  anthers  is  termed  cmasvu- 


152 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


lation.  Be  careful  to  remove  all  the  anthers  and  do  not 
allow  any  of  them  to  drop  down  between  the  filaments  and 
the  pistil.  When  the  emasculation  is  completed  the  sta- 
mens present  the  appearance  of  those  shown  in  fig.  37,  C. 
Generally  it  will  be  found  that  the  stigma  is  quite  ready 
for  the  pollen  at  this  stage.  Hence  it  is  not  necessary  to 
place  a  bag  about  the  emasculated  flower  or  flowers  to 

await  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  pistil 
or  pistils,  as  must 
be  done  with  the 
flowers  of  many 
other  plants. 

Pollination  may 
be  performed  im- 
mediately after 
em  as  cu  1  at  i  o  n 
The  pollen  may  be 
placed  on  the1 
stigma  by  grasp- 
ing one  of  the 
dried  flowers  by 
the  base  and 
bringing  the  an- 
thers in  contact 
with  the  stigma. 
B  u  t  generally 
we  have  used  a 
small,  soft  camel's 
hair  brush  (Plate 

XII)  fitted  with  a  wooden  handle  four  or  five  inches  long 
A  fresh  one  should  be  provided  for  each  different  kind  of 
pollen  to  be  used.  The  brush  is  dipped  into  the  phial  con- 


Fig.  38.    Paper  sack,  covering  cross-pollinated 
Satsuma  flowers. 


ORIGINATING  NEW  VARIETIES. 


153 


taining  the  dried  flowers  and  pollen  and  twirled  around 
so  as  to  fill  it  with  the  pollen  grains.  This  method  is 
rather  wasteful  of  pollen  and  the  one  given  above  is  pref 
erable  where  only  a  small  amount  of  pollen  can  be  secured, 
but  for  working  on  a  large  scale  we  have  found  nothing 
better  to  substitute  for  it.  After  filling  the  brush  with 
pollen  it  is  gently  applied  to  the  stigma.  See  that 
plenty  of  pollen  adheres  to  its  surface.  Then  carefully 
cover  the  pollinated  flower  or  flowers,  if  a  number 
are  together, 
with  a  paper 
bag,  tie  it  tight- 
ly around  the 
branch  and  be- 
low the  sack, 
place  a  label  in- 
dicating the  pol- 
len used  and 
the  date  (fig. 
35). 

Nothing  more 
needs  to  be  done 
until  the  fruit 
has  set.  This 
is  indicated  by 
the  dropping  of 
the  style  from 
the  ovary.  If 
at  this  time  the 
ovary  is  deep 
green  in  color  we  may  feel  reasonably  certain  that  the  fruit 
will  stay  and  that  seeds  have  commenced  to  grow.  At  this 
time,  about  ten  days  or  two  weeks  after  pollinating,  the 
paper  bags  should  be  removed  and  replaced  by  sncks  about 


Figr.   39.      Triumph   pomelo  fruit,   the  result  of 
cross-pollination,    enclosed   in   a   mosquito- 
net,    sack    for    protection. 


154  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

6x8  inches,  made  of  mosquito-netting.  For  pomelos  or 
other  large  citrus  fruits,  the  sacks  should  be  8x10  inches, 
or  larger,  if  a  number  of  fruits  are  included  under  one 
sack.  These  mosquito-netting  sacks  admit  the  air  freely, 
prevent  many  insect  attacks  on  the  young  fruit  and  fre- 
quently save  the  fruit  by  holding  it  if  it  should  drop  after 
it  is  matured  and  before  picking. 

When  the  fruit  is  ripe  it  should  be  carefully  gathered 
and  the  seed  saved.  If  injury  to  the  young  plants  from 
cold  can  be  prevented,  the  seeds  may  be  sown  immediately. 
If  there  is  danger  from  this  source  the  seeds  should  be 
stratified  as  described  later  on  and  kept  until  the  time 
is  suitable  for  planting.  In  most  citrus  growing  districts 
this  can  be  safely  done  by  March.  Give  the  seedlings  good 
care  and  by  August,  they  will  have  attained  a  height  of 
about  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet. 

Some  seeds  will  give  more  than  one  plant,  due  to  the 
presence  of  more  than  one  embryo  in  the  seed.  All  the 
plants  should  be  saved  as  they  may  represent  combinations 
of  the  parent  forms  in  different  proportions.  Some  buds 
may  even  be  secured  in.  autumn  and  inserted  in  stocks 
to  start  growth  the  following  spring.  In  spring,  buds  may 
be  inserted  in  the  tops  of  bearing  trees.  This  will  enable 
one  to  secure  fruit  sooner.  It  may  reasonably  be  expected 
that  fruit  will  be  produced  the  third  season  after  top-work 
ing.  Five  or  six  years  must  generally  elapse  from  the  time 
of  pollinating  until  fruit  is  secured.  Then,  and  not  until 
then,  can  the  results  be  known. 

If  desirable  fruit  is  produced,  well  and  good,  if  not, 
further  work  must  be  done,  and  it  will  generally  be  best 
to  use  one  or  more  crosses  or  hybrids  already  obtained,  as 
one  of  the  parents  of  the  next  generation,  provided  the 
hybrid  or  cross  obtained  possesses  a  sufficient  number 
of  desirable  qualities. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 
JUDGING  CITRUS  FRUITS. 

Rules  and  regulations  for  the  judging  of  most  of  the 
citrus  fruits  were  adopted  by  the  Florida  State  Horticultu- 
ral Society  in  1892  and  by  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Chamber  of  Commerce  in  1894,  and 
these  at  present  are  the  standards  for  the  respective  States. 
In  neither  of  these  sets  of  scales  is  any  provision  made 
for  the  pomelo,  and  since  this  fruit  has  come  to  take  its 
place  along  with  the  orange  and  lemon  as  an  exceedingly 
important  citrus  fruit,  it  seems  but  right  that  provision 
should  be  made  for  judging  it. 

Such  a  provision  is  here  made  by  the  following  scale 
for  pomelos,  which  has  been  prepared  after  having  gone 
carefully  over  the  ground  with  Messrs.  G.  L.  Taber,  E.  N. 
Reasoner  and  E.  S.  Hubbard: 

OFFICIAL     SCALE     AND     RULES     OF     THE     FLORIDA     STATE 
HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETY  FOR  JUDGING  CITRUS  FRUITS. 

Scale.  Points. 

Size,  21/2  to  31/4  inches 10 

Appearance,  skin  fancy  and  silky 10 

Juiciness,  must  sink  in  water 10 

Thickness  of  peel,  3-32  inch 10 

Seedlessness,  one  point  off  for  two  seeds 10 

Sweetness 15 

Acid    15 

Tissue    10 

Konqnet 10 


150  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

RULES. 

1.  The  executive  committee  of  the  Florida  Horticul- 
tural Society  shall  choose  a  superintendent  of  exhibition 
and  three  judges,  with  a  substitute  and  a  secretary.    The 
executive  committee,  including  ex  officio  members  and  com- 
peting exhibitors,  shall  not  be  eligible  as  superintendent 
and  judges.     The  three  judges  shall  conduct  tests,  and 
their  decision  shall  be  final. 

2.  The  deliberation  of  these  judges  shall  be  secret. 
The  superintendent  of  exhibition,  on  application  of  the 
chairman  of  judges,  shall  from  time  to  time  supply  the 
judges  with  specimens  for  judgment,  and  shall  use  dili- 
gence to  secure  them  from  intrusion. 

3.  Each  exhibitor  is  expected  to  be  present  with  and 
in  charge  of  his  own  exhibit.     His  selection  for  entries, 
when  ready,  must  be  formally  turned  over  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  exhibits,  who  will  then  enter  by  name  and  num- 
ber in  a  book  of  record,  and  furnish  him  a  duplicate  card 
to  accompany  each  entry.    Entries  will  be  delivered  to  the 
judges  in  the  order  of  their  reception  and  entry  by  the 
superintendent.    Responsibility  for  wasted  fruit  shall  rest 
with  the  exhibitor,  but  poor  specimens  can  be  replaced  or 
entries  withdrawn  by  consent  of  the  superintendent,  be- 
fore fruit  is  delivered  to  the  judges.     If  an  exhibitor  is 
unable  to  be  present,  he  can  make  a  written  statement  of 
exhibits  as  to  his  fruit  and  entries,  and  the  superintend- 
ent can  make  selections  if  necessary. 

4.  Diplomas  or  cash  premiums,  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Society,  shall  be  divided  into  classes,  1st,  2d,  3d,  4th,  in 
ratio  of  merit  as  to  premium  with  ratio  of  3  and  2  for 
single  plate  premiums.     Seven  specimens  shall  constitute 
a  plate  to  entitle  to  entry,   and  two  of  the  specimens 


JUDGING  CITRUS  FRUITS.  157 

must  be  delivered  to  the  judges,  who  will  examine  both 
and  score  the  best.  These  scores  will  be  eligible  both  for 
single  plate  and  collection  premiums.  The  judges  reserve 
the  right  to  debar  unworthy  or  bogus  specimens. 

5.  The  judges  shall  use  the  amended  scale  giving  ten 
points  each  to  the  following  scores  and  standards  of  per- 
fection:   (1)   size,  21-2  to  31-4  inches,  diameter;   (2)   ap- 
pearance— specimen  must  be  fancy  and  skin  silky;  (3)  for 
juiciness,  it  must  sink  below  the  surface  of  water,  emer- 
gence the  size  of  a  silver  dollar  to  count  9,  one-half  the 
bulk  zero;  (4)  thickness  of  peel,  3-32  inch;  (5)  two  seeds 
to  count  one  point  off  and  two  rudiments  as  one  seed; 
(6)   absence  of  tissue,  membranes  to  be  very  tender  and 
core  porous,  1-8  to  1-4  inch  in  diameter,  as  to  size  of  fruit ; 
qualities  of  flavor,  acid,  15 ;  sweetness,  15,  and  bouquet,  10 ; 
to  be  judged  by  the  taste.    Specimens  of  varieties  excelling 
in  balance  and  richness  of  flavor  to  be  used  as  standards 
for  reference.    Lemons  and  limes  to  count  20  for  acid  and 
20  for  flavor. 

6.  These  rules  must  be  published  with  premium  list, 
and  after  the  judges  have  made  the  awards  with  the  super- 
intendent of  exhibit,  they  shall  deliver  the  entry  book  and 
scores  to  the  executive  committee  and  will  receive  their 
discharge. 

CALIFORNIA    SCALES    AND    RULES. 

The  following  regulations  have  been  adopted  by  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  Los  Angeles  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce in  reference  to  the  judging  of  citrus  fruits : 

No  person  will  be  allowed  to  serve  as  judge  in  any 
class  in  which  he  is  a  competitor. 


158  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Any  exhibitor  who  addresses  a  judge  while  the  latter 
is  in  discharge  of  his  duty,  will  be  debarred  from  com- 
petition. 

A  majority  of  the  judges  present  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  for  decision  in  any  class. 

Preliminary  Classification.  Season — Early,  from  De- 
cember to  April ;  Middle,  February  to  July ;  Late,  June 
to  December. 

Size:  Large,  medium,  small. 

(The  managing  committee  from  each  competing  State 
or  section  is  to  nominate  varieties  to  any  or  all  of  the 
above  classes,  Avith  months,  and — when  practicable — days, 
for  tests  of  its  own  fruit.  Fruit  to  be  judged  by  standards 
of  its  class.  So  far  as  practicable,  no  committee  is  to  judge 
fruit  of  more  than  one  size,  as  per  above  classification.) 

ORANGE     SCALE. 

Divisions:  size,  form,  color,  weight,  peel,  fibre,  grain, 
seed,  taste ;  to  be  considered  in  order  named.  Counts, 
credits,  points.,  to  be  units  and  tenths  thereof,  expressed 
decimally;  possible  total  of  same  to  equal  100. 

1.  Size.    Possible  credits,  10. 
Standards — 

Large  126's — 3  1-4  inches  in  diameter. 
Medium,-  176's — 2  15-16  inches  in  diameter. 
Small,  250's — 2  7-16  inches  in  diameter. 
Tangierines,  etc. — 2  1-8  inch  in  diameter. 
One  unit  discount  for  each  1-8  inch  deficiency  or  ex- 
cess in  any  size. 

2.  Form.     Possible  credits,  5. 
Standards — Round,  oval,  ovate,  pyriform. 


JUDGING  CITRUS  FRUITS.  159 

Discount  for  lack  of  symmetry  and  for  form  blemishes. 
Navel  marks  not  to  be  discounted,  except  when  of  abnor- 
mal size  or  of  bad  form. 

3.  Color.     Possible  credits,  19,  divided  as  follows: 
bloom,  2;  peel,  10;  flesh,  7. 

Standards:  Bloom  to  be  perceptible,  and  to  be  dis- 
counted according  to  degree  of  deficiency  or  of  injury 
thereto;  peel  to  be  of  rich,  deep  orange  color,  in  natural 
condition,  and  to  be  discounted  according  to  degree  of 
deviation  therefrom,  one  or  more  points;  rust,  scale  and 
smut  to  be  discounted  five  to  ten  points,  and  fruit  that 
gives  visible  evidence  of  having  been  cleaned  of  the  same 
to  be  subject  to  equal  penalty;  also  that  has  been  rubbed 
or  "polished,"  giving  a  gloss  at  the  expense  of  breaking 
or  pressing  the  oil  cells,  to  suffer  the  same  discount.  Flesh 
to  be  rich,  clear  and  uniform,  in  any  of  the  shades  com- 
mon to  fine  fruit.  (Omit  consideration  of  "flesh  color'' 
until  after  concluding  division  5,  "peel"). 

4.  Weight.     Possible  credits,  10. 

Standards:  Specific  gravity,  1,  with  buoyancy  of 
3-4  oz.  allowed  to  "large"  fruit,  1-2  oz.  to  "medium,"  and 
1-4  oz.  to  "small,"  all  without  discount. 

One  point  to  be  discounted  for  first  half-ounce  of 
buoyancy  in  excess  of  allowance,  and  thereafter  two  points 
for  each  additional  half-ounce. 

(NOTE — Buoyancy  may  be  easily  determined  by  clasp- 
ing weights  to  the  fruits  with  light  rubber  bands,  and 
then  placing  in  water.) 

5.  Peel.     Possible  credits,   10,   divided  as  follows : 
Finish,  3;  protective  quality,  7. 

Standards:  Of  finish,  smoothness  and  uniformity  of 
surface,  and  pleasant  touch;  of  protective  quality,  firm 
and  elastic  texture,  abundant,  compact  and  unbroken  oil 


1(J()  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

cells;  1-8  to  3-16  inch  thickness.  Discount  one-half  point 
for  first  1-32  inch  above  maximum  or  below  minimum,  and 
two  points  for  second  1-32  inch,  provided  that  too  long 
picked  and  fully-cured  oranges  the  minimum  shall  be 
lowered  to  3-32  inch;  and  that  to  fresh-picked  and  to 
slightly-cured  "large"  fruit  the  maximum  shall  be  raised 
1-4  inch. 

Breaking  oil  cells,  breaking  of  peel  and  abrasions  of 
same  to  be  subject  to  one  to  ten  discounts,  according  to 
degree. 

(Here  consider  "Color  of  Flesh" — see  Division  3.) 

6.  Fiber.    Possible  credits,  4. 

Standards:  Septa  delicate  and  translucent;  maxi- 
mum diameter  of  core,  3-16  inch  in  "large"  fruit  and  1-8 
inch  in  other. 

7.  Grain.     Possible  credits,  4. 
Standards:     Fineness,   firmness,   compactness. 

8.  Seed.     Possible  credits,  4. 
Standard:    Absence  of  seed. 

Discount  one  point  for  each  seed.  Each  rudiment 
to  be  considered  as  a  seed  if  any  growth  has  been  devel- 
oped ;  otherwise  allowed  without  discount. 

9.  Taste.     Possible  credits,  30,  divided  as  follows: 
Sweetness,  15;  citrous  quality,  15. 

Standards:  Clearness  and  definability  of  elements; 
sweetness  rich,  delicate  rather  than  heavy;  citrous  quality 
pronounced. 

Deficiency  of  absence  to  be  cause  for  discounts  against 
any  element,  and  excess  to  be  like  cause  against  sweetness 
and  against  acid  in  "citrous  quality". 

Staleness  and  flavors  of  age  or  decay  to  be  discounted 
from  aggregate  of  points  in  this  division. 


JUDGING  CITRUS  FRUITS.  161 

LEMON    SCALE. 

Divisions :  Size,  form,  color,  weight,  peel,  fiber,  grain, 
seed,  taste. 

Rules  of  counts  and  discounts  as  in  scale  for  oranges. 
Total  of  possible  credits,  100. 

1.  Size.    Possible  credits,  10. 
Standards — 

Large,  250's — 2  3-8  inches  in  diameter. 
Medium,  300's — 2  1-8  inches  in  diameter. 
Small,  360's — 1  7-8  inches  in  diameter. 
All  sizes  between  250's  and  360's  allowed. 
Larger  fruit  to  be  discounted  one  point  for  each  1-4 
inch  in  excess.     Smaller  to  be  discounted  one  point  for 
400's    (13-4    inches),    and   four   points    for   450's    (11-2 
inches) . 

2.  Form.     Possible  credits,  15. 

Standard:  Oblong,  with  allowance  of  well-formed 
points  at  stem  and  tip.  Symmetry  required. 

3.  Color.    Possible  credits,  15; 
Standard :     Bright,  clear  lemon. 

Discounts  according  to  degree  for  green  splashes, 
dashes  of  bronze  or  deep  shades,  or  for  sunburn. 

Rust,  scale  and  smut,  with  fruit  that  gives  evidence 
of  having  been  cleaned  of  the  same,  to  be  discounted  five 
to  ten  counts. 

Rubbing  or  dusting,  if  heavy  enough  to  press  oil  from 
the  cells,  to  be  causes  for  discount. 

4.  Weight.    Possible  credits,  10. 

Standard:  Specific  gravity,  1  (equal  to  that  of 
water),  with  buoyancy  of  1-2  oz.  allowed  to  "large" 
lemons  and  1-4  oz.  to  "medium"  and  "small,"  all  without 
discount. 


162  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

One  point  to  be  discounted  for  first  1-2  oz.  in  excess 
of  allowance,  and  two  points  for  each  1-2  oz.  thereafter. 

5.  Peel.     Possible  credits.  10;  subdivisions  of  which 
are:     Finish,  3  credits;  protective  quality,  7  credits. 

Standard:  For  protective  quality,  to  be  strong,  elas- 
tic and  reasonably  firm  texture ;  abundant,  compact  and 
unbroken  oil  cells  and  thickness  of  3-32  to  3-16  inch 

To  be  discounted  two  counts  for  first  1-32  inch  below 
minimum,  and  five  counts  for  second  1-32  inch;  one  count 
for  first  1-32  inch  above  maximum,  and  two  for  each  suc- 
ceeding 1-32  inch. 

Fresh-picked  lemons  not  allowed. 

6.  Fiber.    Possible  credits,  8. 

Standard :  Septa  delicate  and  translucent.  Core  not 
to  exceed  3-16  inch  in  "large"  and  1-8  inch  in  "medium" 
and  "small"  fruit. 

7.  Grain.     Possible  credits,  8,  divided  as  follows: 
Fineness,  firmness  and  compactness,  4   credits;   color,  4 
credits. 

Standard:  Grain  to  be  water-colored,  shading  to 
blue  rather  than  to  gray. 

8.  Seed.    Possible  credits,  4. 
Standard  :    Absence  of  seed. 

One-half  point  to  be  discounted  for  each  seed.  (A 
discount  of  1-4  credit  for  each  seed  is  now  recommended 
as  sufficient.) 

Rudiments  are  to  be  considered  as  seed  if  any  growth 
has  been  developed ;  otherwise  allowed  without  discount. 

9.  Taste.     Possible  credits,  30,  divided  as  follows: 
Acidity,  20  credits;  absence  of  bitterness,  10  credits. 

In  interstate  competitions  the  standard  of  acidity 
shallbe  the  highest  per  cent  of  strength  of  acid  found  in 
any  fruit,  determined  by  chemical  test.  In  other  compe- 


JUDGING  CITRUS  FRUITS.  163 

titions  such  tests  may  be  applied  as  committees  or  com- 
petitors may  require. 

Bitterness  to  be  determined  by  slicing  fruit  (includ- 
ing peel)  thin,  covering  with  hot  water,  and  cooling 
slowly ;  to  stand  twenty- four  hours  when  practicable  ( no 
sugar  to  be  used).  Should  a  trace  of  bitterness  appear 
to  the  taste,  discount  one  point;  should  the  bitterness  be 
fairly  defined,  discount  two  points;  if  pronounced,  dis- 
count five  points ;  and  if  strong,  ten  points. 

PROPOSED    POMELO    SCALE. 

Scale.  Points. 

External  Characters — 

Size  10 

Color   and   form    10 

Weight   or   juiciness    15 

Kind    10 

Internal  Characters — 

Seedlessness    10 

Freedom  from  fiber  or  tissue 10 

Juice  Qualities — 
Flavor 

Sweetness 15 

Acidity    10 

Bitterness    10 

1.  Size  Standard — 4  to  5  inches. 

2.  Color   Standard — Bright,  uniform,   light  yellow. 

3.  Form  Standard — Round  or  slightly  oblate. 

4.  Weight  or  Juiciness   Standard — Heavy,   sinking 
almost  entirely  in  water. 

5.  Rind  Standard — 3-16  inch  in  thickness. 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

6.  Seedlessness    Standard — No    seeds.     Deduct    one 
point  for  each  five  seeds. 

7.  Freedom  from  Fiber  and  Tissue  Standard— Free 
from  rag. 

8.  Flavor    Standard— A    harmonious    blending    of 
sweetness,  acidity  and  bitterness. 


PART  II. 

CULTURAL. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 
PROPAGATION  OF  CITRUS  TREES. 

Citrus  trees  may  be  propagated  by  budding,  by  graft- 
ing, by  seeds,  by  cutting  or  by  layering.  The  last  men- 
tioned method  is  little  used,  except  for  the  citron,  and  in 
America  it  is  scarcely  ever  resorted  to  as  a  means  for  mul- 
tiplying that  tree.  Budding  is  by  far  the  most  common 
method  in  all  citrus  districts.  Seedling  trees  are  not 
planted  in  such  numbers  as  they  formerly  were.  Fifty 
years  or  so  ago,  and  even  not  so  far  back,  it  was  the  rule 
to  plant  seedling  citrus  trees,  now  it  is  the  exception.  The 
beginning  of  any  tree  fruit  industry  is  usually  marked  by 
the  planting  of  seedling  trees.  Budded  or  grafted  trees 
represent  adaptation  to  new  conditions,  divergence,  spe- 
cialization, progress.  The  planting  of  seeds  as  a  method  of 
propagation  should  not  be  entirely  discountenanced,  how- 
ever. The  seedling  groves  of  Florida  and  other  citrus  dis- 
tricts of  America  produce  good  fruit  in  abundance  and 
from  them  have  been  selected  many  of  the  prominent  var- 
ieties now  so  commonly  planted.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  seedling  trees  should  not  be  condemned  and  the  plant- 
ing of  seeds  for  the  purpose  of  originating  new  varieties 
is  certainly  commendable.  But  better  results  can  probably 
be  obtained  by  cross-fertilization  of  existing  varieties  as 
well  as  species. 

Seedling  trees  may  be  depended  upon  to  give  fruit  of 
good  quality,  but  since  they  are  not  produced  true  to  the 
variety  from  which  the  seed  was  obtained,  they  may  not 
be  prolific,  the  fruit  may  be  undersized,  or  undesirable  for 
some  other  reason.  Generally,  however,  the  fruit  is  good, 


168  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

so  far  as  its  eating  quality  is  concerned.  As  much  cannot 
be  said  for  the  fruit  from  seedling  trees  of  any  other  kind. 
Seedling  plums,  apples  or  pears  may  be  entirely  unfit  to 
eat.  This  is  rarely  true  of  the  orange  or  pomelo. 

But  the  advantages  of  budded  trees  are  many.  They 
bear  at  an  earlier  age.  A  crop  of  fruit  of  uniform  size  and 
quality  can  be  secured.  Varieties  ripening  at  different 
seasons  may  be  planted  and  a  continual  crop  from  Septem- 
ber to  June,  or  even  later,  may  tjms  be  had.  The  grower, 
besides  having  a  choice  of  varieties,  has  a  choice  of  stocks 
which  he  would  not  have  were  he  to  plant  seedlings,  and 
better  results  can  be  obtained  on  different  soils  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case.  Besides,  mal-di-goma,  that  one-time 
dreaded  enemy  of  the  sweet  orange  and  lemon  may  be 
avoided  by  using  stocks  which  will  resist  it. 

CITRUS    SEED    USED    IN    PROPAGATION,    AND    THEIR    CARE. 

There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  different  kinds  of  citrus  seeds  commonly  used  in 
growing  stocks.  Every  propagator  should  be  acquainted 
with  them,  that  substitutions  may  be  avoided.  The  seeds 
of  the  pomelo,  trifoliate  orange,  sweet  orange,  rough  lemon 
and  sour  orange  are  shown  in  Fig  40,  and  these  illustra- 
tions, with  the  accompanying  descriptions  may  be  found 
useful. 

Pomelo.  Plano-convex  or  wedge-shaped,  pointed  or 
broad  and  flat  at  the  micropylar  end;  11-16  inch  long  x 
1-2  inch  wide  x  3-16  inch  thick,  5-8  inch  long  x  7-16  inch 
wide  x  1-4  inch  thick;  smooth  on  two  sides  over  consider- 
able areas,  marked  with  anastomosing  lines  or  ridges  on 
the  other  parts. 


PROPAGATION   OF   CITRUS    TREES. 


169 


Trifoliate  Orange.  Ovoid, 
pointed  or  rounded,  some- 
times plano-convex,  smooth 
or  when  somewhat  dry  the 
outer  integument  contracts, 
giving  a  wrinkled  appear- 
ance. One-half  inch  long  x 
1-4  inch  wide  x  1-8  inch 
thick;  usually  quite  uniform 
in  size  and  shape;  embryo 
one,  cotyledons  two.  The 
others  contain  one  or  more! 
embryos  and  two  or  more 
cotyledons. 

Sweet  Orange.  Oblong- 
ovoid,  plano-convex  or  round- 
ish and  plump,  sometimes 
very  slightly  beaked;  9-16 


Fig.  40.     Six  seeds  each  of  pomelo — trifoliate  orange,  sweet  orange — 

rough    lemon — sour   orange — arranged   in   the   order    named. 

(Natural    size.) 

inch  long  x  5-16  inch  wide  x  1-4  inch  thick,  1-2  inch  long  x 
5-16  inch  wide  x  1-4  inch  thick,  or  larger;  lines  not  promi- 


170  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

nent,     generally     oblique  in  direction,  one  or  two  areas 
smooth  and  plain. 

Rough  Lemon.  Ovoid  or  slightly  tapering;  small, 
3-8  inch  long  x  1-4  inch  wide  x  3-16  inch  thick,  7-16  inch 
long  x  3-16  inch  wide  x  3-16  inch  thick ;  frequently  marked 
with  a  prominent  ridge  along  one  edge,  other  lines  small, 
rather  in  inconspicuous,  anastomosing. 

Sour  Orange.  Plano-convex  or  double-convex,  pointed 
or  flattened  and  wedged  toward  the  micropylar  end,  long 
and  narrow  or  slightly  rounded;  11-16  inch  long  x  5-16 
inch  wide  x  3-16  inch  thick,  9-16  inch  long  x  1-4  inch  wide 
x  3-16  inch  thick.  When  plano-convex,  there  is  a  large, 
smooth  area  on  the  flattened  side,  the  rounded  side  being 
ridged  with  long,  more  or  less  parallel  ridges,  which  unite 
at  the  ends. 

The  seeds  used  in  propagation  work  should  be  se- 
lected from  healthy,  vigorous  trees,  and  small,  immature 
seed  should  be  discarded.  Careful  selection  in  this  matter 
will  do  much  toward  procuring  vigorous,  well  developed 
stocks. 

Seeds  may  be  separated  from  the  fruit  by  cutting  it 
in  halves  and  squeezing  them  out  into  a  sieve.  This 
will  allow  the  juice  to  run  through  and  the  seeds  may  be 
washed  from  the  pulp  afterwards.  The  work  can  be  read- 
ily and  cheaply  performed  by  boys.  Another  method  is 
to  place  the  fruit  in  barrels  and  allow  it  to  rot,  after  which 
the  seed  is  washed  free  from  the  pulpy  mass  with  running 
water,  using  a  sieve  as  before. 

If  citrus  seeds  are  allowed  to  become  too  dry^  they 
do  not  germinate  well  and  unless  they  are  to  be  planted 
immediately,  they  should  be  stratified  in  damp  sand  or 
earth.  The  former,  washed  free  from  all  impurities,  is  pref- 
erable, as  organic  substances  in  the  soil  may  contain 


PROPAGATION  OF  CITRUS   TREES.  JJi 

decay-producing  organisms.     These  sometimes  attack  the 
seed. 

THE     SEED-BED    AND    ITS     MANAGEMENT. 

If  only  a  small  number  of  seedlings  is  desired  they 
may  be  raised  in  boxes  or  flats.  (Fig.  41).  These  should 
be  six  or  eight  inches  deep  and  of  any  convenient  width 
and  length.  They  should  be  filled  with  good  virgin  soil. 
The  seeds  may  be  sown  rather  thickly  in  rows  three  inches 
apart.  When  six  or  eight  inches  high,  they  may  be  trans- 
planted to  the  nursery  row. 

When  a  large  number  of  seedlings  is  required,  a  seed- 
bed must  be  provided.  It  should  be  composed  of  rich, 
friable  earth,  sufficiently  moist  to  insure  proper  germina- 
tion of  the  seed.  If  deficient  in  plant  food,  it  may  be  en- 


Fig.   41.      Seedling  pomelos   raised  in  a   flat. 

riched  by  the  addition  of  commercial  fertilizer  such  as  is 
recommended  for  young  trees.  This  should  be  applied  to 
the  bed  and  worked  into  the  soil  two  or  three  weeks  before 
planting  the  seed.  It  is  unsafe  to  apply  commercial  ferti- 
lizer and  then  plant  the  seed  immediately  afterward.  The 
length  of  time  which  should  elapse  between  the  two  opera- 
tions will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil 
and  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  applied.  If  very  dry  weather 
follows  the  applying  of  the  fertilizer,  a  longer  time  must 
be  allowed  to  intervene  than  if  there  be  plenty  of  rain. 


172 


CITRU8  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


The  seed  should  be  sowed  as  soon  as  all  danger  of 
frost  is  past.  Generally  the  seed  is  placed  in  the  ground 
about  the  first  of  March,  though  it  may  sometimes  be 
safely  done  a  week  or  two  earlier.  Much  depends  upon 
the  location.  If  a  comparatively  small  number  of  seed- 
lings are  required,  the  rows  may  be  placed  quite  close 
together,  but  where  seedlings  are  raised  by  the  thousands, 
hand  labor  is  too  expensive.  Cultivation  must  then  be 
done  with  a  horse  or  mule  and  the  space  between  the  rows 
should  be  sufficiently  great  to  admit  of  this,  two  and  a 
half  to  three  feet  being  about  right.  The  seed  should  be 
planted  quite  thickly,  at  a  depth  of  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  or  an  inch.  The  ground  should  be  moist  at  the  time 
of  planting  to  secure  the  best  results. 

Throughout  the  season  the  ground 
should  be  cultivated  thoroughly  and  fre- 
quently, and  weeds  should  not  be  allowed 
to  spring  up.  In  many  sections  one  or 
two  additional  applications  of  commercial 
fertilizer  should  be  made  during  the  sum- 
mer. Care  must  be  taken  that  the  seed- 
lings do  not  dry  out.  To  prevent  this  it 
may  be  necessary  to  irrigate,  but  frequent 
shallow  cultivation,  to  preserve  an  earth- 
mulch  will  help  very  materially.  Some 
resort  to  mulching  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  moisture.  Both  in  California 
and  Florida  seed-beds  are  frequently  made 
under  lath  sheds.  These  keep  the  scorch- 
ing rays  of  the  sun  from  striking  the 
plants,  prevent  rapid  evaporation  and 
tFion  of  pom^eTd  afford  protection  to  the  young  plants 

showing    two    plant-    PO-QITKS+ 
lets  from  one  seed.      Against 


PROPAGATION   OF   CITRUS    TREES.  173 

The  seedlings  should  usually  be  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  seed-bed  until  they  have  had  one  or  two  season's 
growth  They  may  be  transplanted  to  the  nursery  rows 
when  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  so  in  diameter  at  the  ground. 
The  best  time  for  transplanting  is  in  winter  though  the 
same  general  laws  apply  as  in  transplanting  larger  trees. 

In  digging  the  seedlings  from  the  seed-bed,  the  spade 
should  be  shoved  down  beside  them  to  a  depth  of  eight 
or  ten  inches.  After  they  are  loosened  and  the  tap-root 
has  been  severed  at  about  that  depth,  they  may  be  lifted 
out  readily.  Before  setting  them  in  the  nursery  row,  the 
tap-root  should  be  trimmed  back  to  insure  a  well-branched 
root  system. 

THE    NURSERY    AND    ITS    CARE. 

The  ground  for  the  nursery  should  be  carefully  se- 
lected. A  piece  of  ground  with  a  rather  heavy  sub-soil 
and  light,  mellow  surface  scil  is  best.  A  good  prepa- 
ration for  the  nursery  is  to  plant  it  in  beggarweed 
or  velvet  beans  the  year  previous  to  planting,  and  in  reg- 
ular nursery  work,  one  of  these  legumes  should  always  be 
planted  after  a  block  of  trees  is  removed. 

Seedlings  may  be  transplanted  from  the  seed-bed  to 
the  nursery  in  November  and  December.  In  frosty  reg- 
ions, a  furrow  may  be  plowed  against  each  side  of  the 
row  to  protect  them  from  frost. 

Cultivate  the  ground  thoroughly  before  transplanting 
and  apply  commercial  fertilizer  in  rather  liberal  quanti- 
ties. One  application  should  be  given  some  time  before 
the  seedlings  are  set  out,  a  second  in  June  and  a  third  in 
August,  about  one  ton  in  all  per  acre.  The  rows  should  be 


174  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

carefully  laid  off,  perfectly  straight,  three  and  a  half  or 
four  feet  apart.  This  will  give  plenty  of  room  for  culti- 
vation and  for  the  work  of  budding. 

The  seedlings  should  be  set  in  the  rows  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  inches  apart.  If  the  soil  is  dry  at  the  time  of 
transplanting,  water  should  be  applied.  The  trees  should 
be  firmly  placed  in  the  soil  with  the  earth  firmly  packed 
about  them.  At  time  of  transplanting  the  well-developed, 
vigorous  seedlings  should  be  set  out  together.  The  smaller 
ones  should  be  planted  by  themselves.  Thorough,  clean 
cultivation  should  be  the  rule.  Make  every  effort  to  keep 
the  little  trees  growing  throughout  the  season.  Cultivation 
must  cease  in  time  to  allow  the  wood  to  harden  up  before 
cold  weather.  One  year  after  transplanting,  most  of  the 
seedlings  will  be  ready  for  budding.  By  this  time  they 
should  be  upwards  of  one-half  inch  in  diameter  at  the 
crown. 

Since  the  scab  fungus  attacks  sour  seedlings  severely, 
and  interferes  materially  with  their  growth  and  develop- 
ment it  is  a  good  practice  to  spray  them,  both  in  the  seed- 
bed and  nursery,  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  disease 
can  be  kept  down  by  its  use  and  as  a  result  a  much  better 
growth  will  be  made  during  the  season. 

CUTTINGS. 

Many  varieties  of  citrus  trees  may  be  propagated  from 
cuttings.  The  Otaheite  orange,  used  as  an  ornamental  and 
as  a  stock  for  dwarfing  large-growing  citrus  trees  is  usu- 
ally propagated  in  this  way.  The  citron  roots  easily,  so 
also  does  its  near  relative,  the  lemon.  For  these  trees 
propagation  by  cuttings  seems  to  give  good  results.  Cut- 
tings of  the  pomelo  and  orange  are  more  difficult  to  root 
and,  though  it  may  be  accomplished,  the  method  for  these 


PROPAGATION   OF   CITRUS    TREES. 


175 


trees  has  little  to  recommend  it  and  is  not  practicable. 
The  citron,  lemon,  trifoliate  orange  and  Otaheite  orange 
may  be  grown  from  cuttings. 

Cuttings  should  be  made  from  well  matured  wood  of 
one  or  two  season's  growth.  Each  cutting  should  have 
at  least  three  or  four  well  matured  buds  and  should  be 
about  five  inches  long.  Trim  off  the  leaves,  cut  the  dis- 
tal end  with  a  smooth,  sloping  cut  just  above  a  bud  and 
cut  the  proximal  end  so  as  to  leave  a  similar  surface  just 
below  a  bud.  The  knife  should  have  a  keen,  sharp  edge 
to  insure  smoothness  of  the  cut  surfaces.  A  clean,  smooth 
cut  greatly  facilitates  the  formation 
of  a  callus,  which  must  take  place 
before  roots  will  develop. 

Though  the  cuttings  may  be  rooted 
in  almost  any  well  drained  soil,  still 
the  better  plan  is  to  plant  them  in 
clean  washed  sand,  free  from  organic 
substances.  Organic  matter  nearly 
always  contains  the  organisms  of  de- 
cay. These  may  attack  the  cuttings 
and  cause  them  to  rot.  Place  the  cut- 
tings in  rows  six  to  twelve  inches 
apart  and  three  or  four  inches  apart 
in  the  rows.  Give  sufficient  water  to 
keep  the  cutting  bed  moist,  and  pro- 
tect it  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
If  bottom  heat  can  be  applied,  they 
will  take  root  more  readily.  When 
the  cuttings  have  formed  a  number  of 
roots,  and  have  sent  out  shoots  bear- 
ing two  or  three  leaves,  they  may  be  transplanted  to  two 
or  three  inch  pots.  The  cuttings  may  be  allowed  to  de- 


Fig.  43.  Genoa  lemon 
cutting,  six  months  old; 
stem  four  inches  long. 


176 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


velop  into  trees  or  they  may  be  budded  or  grafted,  if  so 
desired,  after  they  have  attained  sufficient  size. 

SELECTING,    CUTTING  AND    KEEPING   BUDWOOD   AND    CIONS. 

The  most  rigid  care  should 
be  exercised  that  no  mistake  be 
made  in  the  identity  of  the  tree 
or  trees  from  which  budwood 
and  cions  are  to  be  cut.  At  all 
places  in  the  process  of  propa- 
gation where  it  is  possible  for 
errors  to  occur,  no  precaution 
should  be  neglected  to  guard 
against  mixing  of  varieties  or 
the  accidental  substitution  of 
one  variety  for  another.  Care- 
ful labeling  of  varieties,  the 
providing  of  plantation  maps, 
the  employment  of  capable,  con- 
scientious men,  and  attention 
to  all  details  of  the  work  on  the 
part  of  overseers  will,  in  large 
establishments,  go  a  long  way 
toward  preventing  the  occur- 
rence of  mistakes  and  the  con- 
sequent origination  of  suppos- 
edly new  varieties  or  the  mixing 
of  old  ones.  Both  budwood  and 
cions  should  be  chosen  from 
well  matured  wood  of  not  more 
than  one  season's  growth.  Us- 
ually it  is  best  to  select  from  wood  of  the  last  one  or  two 
growths  matured  just  previous  to  the  time  of  cutting,  bear- 


Fig.    44.      Different    kinds   of 
bndwood  .       A,    angled  wood. 
B,    angled,    with    thorns.      C, 
round. 


PROPAGATION   OF   CITRUS    TREES.  177 

ing  in  mind  always  that  cirtus  trees  generally  make  and 
mature  three  or  more  distinct  growths  each  season.  In 
cases  where  the  variety  is  especially  valuable,  almost  any 
bud,  small,  immature  or  growing,  may  be  used  and  made 
to  grow,  but  for  general  propagation  work,  such  are  not 
desirable.  For  ordinary  shield  budding,  round  wood  is 
preferable,  and  to  secure  this  the  older  wood  must 
generally  be  used.  All  very  new  growth  is  more 
or  less  angular,  it  becomes  round  only  as  it  grows 
older.  For  shield-budding  with  a  right  angled  or  curved 
incision,  angled  wood  must  be  chosen,  while  for  graft 
cions,  either  will  do,  provided  it  is  all  right  in  other  re- 
spects. No  wood  should  be  taken  from  diseased  or  un- 
thrifty trees;  the  parent  tree  should  be  healthy  and  vig- 
orous. Thorny  wood  should  be  avoided  whenever  possible. 
Thorns  are  very  undesirable  on  citrus  trees  and  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  eliminate  them.  Rigid  selection, 
throughout  a  number  of  bud  generations,  of  buds  or  cions 
from  thornless  shoots  borne  on  those  trees  producing  the 
fewest  thorns  will  eventually  bring  about  the  desired 
change  in  most  varieties.  It  has  been  a  somewhat  mooted 
question  as  to  whether  it  is  a  good  practice  to  cut  bud- 
wood  or  cions  from  anything  except  bearing  trees.  The^ 
general  conclusion  borne  out  by  the  experience  of  many/ 
growers  is  that  wood  from  young  non-bearing  trees  gives!  - 
as  good  results  in  fruiting  trees  as  when  chosen  from  bear-J 
ing  trees.  Here  and  there  in  nearly  every  grove  unpro- 
ductive trees  are  to  be  found,  a  condition  probably  brought 
about  by  the  use  of  naturally  barren  buds,  but  this  is 
as  likely  to  occur  where  one  practice  is  followed  as  where 
the  other  is  adopted. 

There  is  no  way  to  prevent  this  undesirable  condition, 
and  the  best  treatment  for  such  trees  is  to  top  work  them. 


178  VITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

By  so  doing  they  may  be  made  fruitful  in  two  or  three 
years.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  believed  that  some  vari 
eties  may  be  made  more  prolific  by  carefully  selecting  buds 
or  cions  from  the  most  fruitful  branches  of  those  trees 
sho\ving  a  tendency  toward  a  more  fruitful  habit.  Of  most 
of  our  citrus  varieties  it  may  be  said,  however,  that  they 
are  sufficiently  prolific  when  worked  on  congenial  stocks 
and  grown  under  the  right  conditions. 

For  work  in  early  spring,  the  bud  sticks  or  grafts 
should  be  cut  from  the  trees  the  previous  December,  if 
there  is  danger  of  injury  from  frost.  The  wood  is  thor- 


Fig.  45.     Mr.  Taber's  method  of  keeping-  budwood. 

Each  bin  contains  a  separate  variety,  buried 

in  sphagnum. 

oughly  hardened  by  this  time  and  may  be  kept  for  use 
in  June  or  July  as  well,  though  material  may  be  secured 
from  the  trees  at  the  time  of  June  and  dormant  budding. 
In  sections  free  from  frost,  the  wood  may  be  cut  just 
previous  to  the  commencement  of  growth  in  spring,  if  re- 
quired for  immediate  use,  but  the  better  plan  is  to  cut  the 
wood  in  December. 

It  is  poor  policy  to  wait  until  after  the  trees  have 
started  to  grow  before  attempting  to  secure  budwood 
and  cions.  On  citrus  trees  most  of  the  desirable  buds 


PROPAGATION  OF   CITRUS    TREES. 


develop  into  growing  shoots.  Many  of  these  new  shoots 
must  be  sacrificed  to  obtain  any  quantity  of  wood  and 
that  which  is  procured  is  very  inferior.  Instead  of  trying 
to  secure  material  out  of  season,  cut  it  at  the  proper 
time. 

Remove  the  leaves  and  cut  the  wood  in  lengths  of  a 
foot  or  so.  If  only  a  small  quantity  is  required,  tie  in 
small  bundles,  pack  them  in  moist  sphagnum  or  saw-dust 
in  a  box,  replace  the  cover  and  bury  it  six  or  eight  inches 
deep  in  the  earth  in  a  shady  place.  The  bundles  should 
be  carefully  labeled  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
have  the  moss  too  damp. 

If  large  quantities  of  wood  are  needed  in  spring,  the 
method  of  keeping  it  used  by  Mr.  G.  L.  Taber,  is  one  of 
the  best.  Select  a  well  drained  space.  Place  the  bud  wood 
on  the  ground  in  layers  wTith  damp  sphagnum  between 
the  layers.  Then  cover  the  whole  with  sphagnum.  The 
piles  must  not  be  too  large,  and  should  be  protected  from 
the  sun  and  rain.  The  air  is  allowed  to  circulate  freely 
about  and  over  the  piles.  The  cions  or  budwood  keep 
perfectly  until  needed  for  use,  when  it  will  be  found  that 
the  cut  surfaces  have  callused. 

MATERIALS   AND    TOOLS    FOR    PERFORMING    THE   WORK. 

The  materials  and  tools  used  in  budding  and  graft- 
ing are  neither  numerous  nor  expensive.  While  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  work  may  be  done  with  a  piece  of 
twine  and  a  knife,  still  if  a  large  amount  of  work  is  to  be 
done,  the  following  articles  will  facilitate  the  operations 
and  should  be  provided:  grafting  wax,  pruning  knife, 
grafting  iron,  shears,  a  small  mallet  and  labels. 

Waxes  and  Cloth.  The  following  recipes  have  been 
tried  and  found  to  be  equally  good  for  our  conditions: 


180  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE, 

Recipe  No.  1.  Resin,  6  Ibs.;  beeswax,  2  Ibs.;  linseed 
oil,  1  pint. 

Recipe  No.  2.  Resin,  4  Ibs. ;  beeswax,  2  Ibs. ;  tallow,  1  lb. 

The  directions  for  preparing  them  are  briefly  as  fol- 
lows : 

Break  the  resin  into  small  pieces,  cut  up  the  beeswax 
and  place  the  two  together  in  a  suitable  iron  pot.  Pour 
the  linseed  oil  over  them,  or  in  case  recipe  No.  2  is 
used,  place  the  tallow  on  top.  Set  the  pot  over  a  slow 
fire  and  allow  the  materials  to  melt.  Afterward  remove 
from  the  fire,  pour  into  cold  water,  grease  the  hands  and 
pull  until  it  is  light  colored. 

If  a  liquid  wax  is  desired,  take  one  pound  of  resin, 
two  ounces  of  tallow,  melt  them  together  and  mix  thor- 
oughly. Remove  from  the  fire,  cool  slightly  and  add 
slowly  six  ounces  alcohol  and  one  ounce  spirits  turpentine 
Keep  tightly  corked  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle.  Apply 
with  a  brush. 

For  waxed  cloth,  procure  thin  muslin  cloth  and  sat- 
urate it  with  wax  made  according  to  either  of  the  recipes 
given  above.  Prepare  the  cloth  by  tearing  into  strips 
four  or  five  inches  wide  and  winding  it  around  sticks  about 
a  foot  or  so  in  length  and  one  inch  thick.  The  rolls  should 
not  be  more  than  two  inches  thick,  else  the  wax  will  not 
penetrate  to  the  center.  Melt  the  wax  over  a  slow  fire, 
place  the  rolls  in  it  and  allow  it  to  remain  there  until 
the  wax  has  penetrated  the  cloth.  The  wax  should  not 
be  allowed  to  become  too  hot,  else  there  is  danger  of  burn- 
ing the  cloth.  Have  it  just  hot  enough  to  keep  the  wax 
in  a  melted  condition.  As  soon  as  it  is  saturated,  remove 
the  cloth  from  the  wax  and  store  away.  When  required 
for  use,  unroll  the  desired  length  and  tear  it  into  strips 
one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide. 


PROPAGATION  OF   CITRUS   TREES.  igl 

Instead  of  tearing  the  cloth  into  strips  four  or  five 
inches  wide,  it  may  be  dipped  into  the  wax  in  large  sheets, 
immediately  removed  and  stretched  out  on  a  flat  surface. 
Or  the  cloth  may  be  stretched  out  and  the  hot  wax  applied 
to  its  surface  with  a  brush.  When  prepared  by  either 
of  these  methods,  it  may  be  torn  into  strips  from  one-half 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  and  wound  around  a 
stick  as  before,  or  carried  to  the  field  in  small,  rectangu- 
lar sheets,  from  which  strips  may  be  torn  as  they  are 
needed. 

If  twine  is  desired,  procure  balls  of  No.  18  knitting 
cotton  and  place  them  in  the  melted  wax.  Keep  them 
immersed  and  turn  them  over  frequently.  In  the  course 
of  five  or  six  minutes  the  wax  will  have  penetrated  through 
and  through,  when  they  may  be  removed  and  set  aside. 
Untreated  cloth  or  twine  or  raffia  may  be  used  instead 
of  the  waxed  material,  but  the  advantage  of  the  latter 
over  the  former  is  that  while  possessing  sufficient  strength, 
it  is  more  easily  broken  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  tie 
them  about  the  stock.  They  may  be  drawn  tight,  where- 
upon the  sticky,  waxy  surface  will  hold  the  wrapping  in 
place. 

Tools.  Good  grafting  and  pruning  knives  may  be 
procured  from  almost  any  hardware  merchant  or  from 
dealers  in  horticultural  implements  and  supplies.  The 
budding  knife  should  have  a  thin  blade,  rounded  at  the 
point.  In  the  end  of  the  handle  a  piece  of  thin  bone  is  in- 
serted, or  the  end  of  the  handle  is  thinned  down  to  serve 
the  same  purpose.  This  spatula  at  the  end  of  the  handle 
is  intended  for  lifting  the  edges  of  the  bark  in  budding, 
as  explained  in  the  section  on  budding,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  is  seldom  used,  the  blade  of  the  knife  being 
used  instead. 


182 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


n 


The  best  pruning  knives  are  those  with 

a  heavy  staghorn  handle  and  straight  or 

somewhat   curved   blades.     This   knife  is 

used  in  propagation  work  to  smooth  the 

cut  surface  of  the  stock,  for  splitting  the 

stock  and  frequently  for  removing  small 

branches  and  thorns  which  may  be  in  the 

way  of  the  operator.    For  the  latter  pur- 

pose, however,  the  pruning  shears  are  pref- 

erable. 
The  best  shears  are  the  solid  steel  ones. 

They     are     strong     and     durable.       The 

blades  are  easily  tightened  and  they  can 

be  taken  apart  for  sharpening  when  so 

desired.     Nothing  is  more  unsatisfactory 

than  to  have  to  work  with  a  poor  pair  of 

shears,  and  the  best  should  be  secured. 
In  cleft  grafting,  the  grafting  iron  and 

mallet   come  into  use.     An  iron   with   a 
blade  shaped  as  in  Fig.  47  is  best 

For  nursery  work,  labels  made  of  inch  mater- 
ial, two  and  one-half  inches  wide  and  two  and 
a  half  or  three  feet  long  should  be  provided.  These 
are  to  be  used  as  labels  for  rows  of  varieties, 
the  name  being  plainly  stamped  on  the  upper  por- 
tion. For  block  labels,  nothing  is  better  than 
cypress  posts  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter. 
These  are  sloped  off  at  the  top,  leaving  a  broad, 
smooth  surface,  three  or  four  inches  long  by  as 
much  in  width.  This  area  is  then  painted  white 
and  the  block  number  placed  on  it.  Wired,  wooden 
*ree  la^e^s  should  also  be  provided. 


v 


iron. 


PROPAGATION   OF   CITRUS    TREES.  183 

BUDDING. 

Time.  In  all  citrus  growing  districts,  nursery  trees 
are  propagated  almost  entirely  by  budding.  Buds  may  be 
inserted  in  citrus  stocks  any  time  during  the  growing  per- 
iod. The  trees  are  not  periodic  in  their  growth  as  apples 
and  plums  are,  for  instance.  When  well  cultivated  and 
fertilized,  the  stocks  will  make  at  least  three  growths  dur- 
ing the  spring  and  summer.  Each  one  of  these  is  matured 
and  hardened  before  the  next  begins.  During  the  hard- 
ening or  rest  period,  the  bark  does  not  slip  so  well  as  dur- 
ing the  time  of  growth.  In  most  citrus  districts  the 
winter  rest  period,  partial  or  otherwise,  extends  from 
about  November  to  February,  depending,  of  course,  upon 
the  latitude  and  the  climatic  conditions  throughout  the 
winter. 

During  this  period,  buds  cannot  be  inserted  to  ad- 
vantage as  there  is  not  sufficient  sap  moving  to  cause  the 
bark  to  slip  readily.  In  Florida,  California  and  Louis- 
iana, buds  may  be  inserted  in  March  and  April,  In  the 
Islands,  where  the  winter  temperatures  are  not  so  low 
as  in  the  districts  just  referred  to,  and  where  in  conse- 
quence the  winter  rest  period  is  of  shorter  duration,  the 
buds  may  be  inserted  much  earlier.  Budding  early  in  the 
season  is  termed  spring  budding.  In  June  arid  July,  or  in 
Florida,  just  before  the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season, 
budding  may  be  performed.  This  is  summer  budding. 
Generally,  a  very  considerable  amount  of  budding  is  done 
during  September  and  October,  dormant  budding.  In  this 
case  the  buds  remain  dormant  until  the  following  spring, 
when  they  commence  to  grow.  They  are  protected  in  the 
nursery  rows  in  the  cooler  districts  by  plowing  a  furrow 
against  them.  The  tops  of  the  stocks  may  be  frozen  back, 


184  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

but  no  harm  results.  It  simply  takes  the  place  of  pruning 
and  starts  the  buds  growing  soon  after  the  furrow  is 
removed,  which  should  be  done  during  the  latter  part  of 
March  or  somewhat  earlier.  Summer  budding  is  not  to 
be  recommended  for  all  sections.  In  frostless  regions,  no 
objection  can  be  urged  against  the  practice,  but  in  regions 
subject  to  frost,  the  growth,  resulting  from  buds  inserted 
at  this  time,  is  often  not  sufficiently  matured  to  withstand 
the  frosts  of  early  fall  and  winter.  Of  course,  the  point 
of  union  with  the  stock  may  be  covered  with  earth  as 
mentioned  above,  but  even  then  if  the  growth  be  soft  and 
succulent,  it  may  be  stunted  or  killed  outright. 

Methods.  As  soon  as  the  stocks  have  attained  suffi- 
cient size,  buds  may  be  inserted  in  them.  Occasionally 
stocks  grown  from  seed  planted  in  spring  may  be  dormant- 
budded  the  following  autumn,  or  they  may  be  spring- 
budded  when  one  year  old,  or  worked  in  June  or  the  fol- 
lowing September.  These  are  exceptions,  however,  and 
generally  the  stocks  are  budded  when  two  or  three 
years  old,  but  there  is  no  age  limit  beyond  which 
buds  cannot  be  inserted  by  some  method,  pro- 
vided the  stocks  are  of  sufficient  size  and  the 
bark  will  slip  readily.  One  other  matter  must  be  consid- 
ered before  taking  up  the  actual  discussion  of  methods. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  point  of  union  between 
the  stock  and  cion  is  more  subject  to  the  effects  of  cold 
than  any  other  part  of  the  trunk  of  a  budded  tree.  Be- 
sides, if  all  that  part  which  has  developed  from  the  cion, 
perishes  in  cold  weather,  re-budding  is  necessary.  This 
might  be  prevented  by  budding  well  down  toward  the 
crown  roots,  that  the  earth  might  afford  protection  or 
that  it  might  be  more  easily  banked  against  the  point  of 
union  during  the  dangerous  season. 


PROPAGATION  OF  CITRUS  TREES.  185 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that 
on  many  soils  one  would  be  running  the  risk  of  having 
sweet,  mandarin  or  lemon  trunks  attacked  by  mal-di-goma, 
or  foot-rot,  even  where  worked  upon  sour  orange,  pomelo 
or  other  resistant  stocks,  if  the  point  of  union  be  placed 
too  close  to  the  ground.  They  are  just  as  liable  to  attack 
as  though  they  were  seedling  varieties  of  the  groups  just 
mentioned.  To  avoid  this,  the  point  of  union  should  be 
some  distance  above  the  ground.  In  lemon  districts,  where 
irrigation  either  by  furrow  or  basin  methods  is  resorted  to, 
as  in  California,  for  instance,  the  point  of  union  between 
stock  and  cion  should  be  a  sufficient  distance  above  the 
ground  to  protect  the  lemon  trunk  from  the  moisture  pro- 
vided by  irrigation.  Unless  this  be  done  the  trunks  may 
become  diseased.  From  these  remarks  it  will  be  seen  that 
a  knowledge  of  the  conditions  must  determine  the  point 
at  which  it  would  be  best  to  insert  the  buds. 

The  method  of  budding  most  commonly  used,  and 
the  one  used  entirely  in  nursery  work,  is  that  known  as 
shield  or  T  budding.  In  California  the  method  properly 
known  by  this  name  is  used,  while  in  Florida  and  Louisi- 
ana the  reversed  method,  or  inverted  T  incision  is  used. 
The  best  practice  in  the  Islands  is  to  follow  the  Florida 
and  Louisiana  method.  The  reason  usually  assigned  for 
the  use  of  the  reversed  method  is  that  it  excludes  water 
from  the  cuts.  But  if  waxed  cloth  is  used,  this  explana- 
tion has  little  force.  Baltet  says  that  it  is  used  to  avoid 
the  smothering  of  the  bud  by  the  superabundance  of  sap. 
This  holds  good  for  our  summer  conditions,  but  is  scarcely 
applicable  to  spring  budding.  It  is  perhaps  true  that  the 
reversed  method  is  commonly  used  as  a  matter  of  custom. 
At  any  rate  we  have  secured  as  good  results  by  one  method 
ns  bv  the  other. 


188  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Plates  XIII  and  XIV  show  the  different  steps  in  the 
process  of  shield  budding  citrus  trees  as  done  in  Florida. 

Select  the  point  at  which  the  bud  is  to  be  inserted 
and  remove  all  thorns  or  branches  which  may  interfere 
with  the  work.  Then  a  perpendicular  slit  an  inch  and 
a  half  in  length  is  made  on  the  side  of  the  stock  (1)  and 
at  its  lower  end  a  cross  cut  is  made  with  the  cutting  edge 
of  the  blade  slanting  upwards  (2).  A  cut  of  this  kind 
is  preferable,  as  it  makes  it  easier  to  insert  the  bud. 
Then  the  corners  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  two 
cuts  are  carefully  lifted  with  the  point  of  the  knife  blade 
to  permit  the  entrance  of  the  bud  (3)  or  the  bone  end 
of  the  handle  may  be  used  instead.  Then  the  bud-stick  is 
grasped  in  one  hand  with  its  proximal  end  away  from 
the  operator.  To  remove  the  bud,  start  the  knife  in  about 
one-half  inch  below  it  and  pass  it  smoothly  along  beneath 
it  and  finish  the  cut  about  one-half  inch  above  the  bud 
(4).  The  cut  is  best  made  from  below  the  bud,  upwards, 
as  there  is  less  likelihood  of  its  being  injured  by  the  up- 
ward pressure  of  the  knife  against  it.  After  having  re- 
moved the  bud,  it  is  held  lightly  between  the  thumb  and 
fore-finger  and  shoved  upwards  in  the  incision  made  for 
its  reception  (5).  Do  not  invert  it  in  inserting.  Gener- 
ally each  bud  bears  beneath  it  a  leaf  stalk  or  the  scar 
left  where  it  has  been  dropped  or  has  been  cut  off.  When 
the  bud  is  inserted,  this  scar  should  be  nearest  the  ground. 
Then  the  wrapping,  a  strip  of  waxed  cloth,  or  raffia,  is 
placed  about  the  stock  over  the  inserted  bud  to  hold  the 
latter  snugly  in  place  and  closely  in  contact  with  the 
cambium  of  the  stock  (7.)  In  all  cases  the  wrapping 
should  be  drawn  over  the  intersecting  cuts  first,  and  then 
worked  upward  in  the  reversed  method  or  downward  in 
the  ordinary  one,  as  followed  in  California. 


PROPAGATION   OF   CITRUS    TREES.  189 

Sometimes  it  is  very  difficult  to  secure  anything  ex- 
cept angled  budwood.  If  a  bud  is  cut  from  such  wood 
by  holding  the  knife  directly  under  the  bud,  it  is  cut  off 
with  a  shield  so  narrow  as  to  be  undesirable.  In  such  cases 
the  bud  should  be  cut  from  the  side,  removing  a  shield- 
shaped  piece  of  bark  as  before,  but  with  the  bud  at  one 
side  of  it  instead  of  in  the  center.  Then  instead  of  mak- 
ing an  inverted  T  incision  for  its  reception,  a  right-angled 
incision  should  be  made  (Fig.  48)  with  the  lower  cut 
either  to  the  right  or  left  to  suit  the  bud.  The  angle  of 
the  bark  at  the  intersection  of  the  cuts  is  then  lifted  and 
the  bud  inserted  so  as  to  have  the  bud  in  position  in  the 
upright  incision.  This  method  should  be  known  as  shield- 
budding  ivith  a  right-angled  incision.  After  inserting,  the 
bud  is  wrapped  as  directed  above. 

An  examination  made  ten  days  or  two  weeks  after 
the  insertion  of  the  buds  will  determine  whether  they 
have  united  with  the  stocks  or  not.  If  at  that  time  the 
buds  are  still  green  and  a  grayish  line  of  new  tissue  is 
seen  around  the  edges  of  the  incisions,  it  may  be  safely 
concluded  that  union  has  taken  place  and  that  the  bud 
will  grow,  provided  it  is  a  perfect  one.  If  the  buds  have 
united,  remove  the  wrapping  and  after  three  or  four  days 
the  stock  should  be  either  lopped,  pruned  back  or  cut 
entirely  off.  Those  stocks  in  which  buds  have  failed  to 
take  should  be  re-budded. 

Lopping  is  not  always  necessary,  particularly  with 
small  stocks.  They  may  be  cut  entirely  off.  But  lopping 
is  the  safest  plan  to  follow  with  stock  of  considerable 
size  and  particularly  with  such  vigorous  growers  as  pom- 
elo and  rough  lemon. 

Cut  in  with  the  saw  or  pruning  shears  on  the  same 
side  as  that  on  which  the  bud  is,  making  the  cut  about  two 


190 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


inches  above  the  bud  and  passing  through  the  stock  about 
two-thirds  of  the  way.  Then  bend  the  top  over,  being 
careful,  if  it  splits,  that  the  line  of  cleavage  runs  up- 
ward toward  the  top,  not  downward  toward  the  root. 
In  lopping  trees  recently  budded  in  the  nursery  rows,  the 

tops  in  each  pair  of  rows 
should  be  turned  into  the 
space  between  them,  thus 
leaving  each  alternate 
space  free  for  cultivation. 
When  the  buds  have 
pushed  out  to  a  distance 
of  a  foot  or  more,  the 
lopped  stocks  may  be  re- 
moved entirely  by  being 
cut  smoothly  off  just  above 
the  bud.  At  this  stage, 
whether  lopping  has  been 
resorted  to  or  not,  each 
bud  should  have  a  stake 
placed  beside  it  and  it 
should  be  tied  to  the  stake, 
using  cotton  twine,  raffia, 
or  cotton  cloth  torn  in 
strips.  The  stakes  may  be 
split  from  heart-wood  of 
pine  or  other  durable 
wood  and  should  be  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch 

Fig.  48.    Budding  old  trees  with  firm,  hard     «nilprp   «n/l    fmir  fppf   IntlD1 
bark.     A,    angled   budwood.     B,    curved   in-    Square  and  3Ug. 

cision.  C,  the  bud  ready  for  insertion.  D,  A  Q  +11P  hnrl  o-rnw«!  nnwarrl 
the  bud  partially  inserted.  E,  right-angled  AS  ]  fl  grows  upward, 

it   should   be  tied   to   the 
stake  to  keep  it  from  falling  over. 


PROPAGATION  OF  CITRUS  TREES.  191 

Budding  Old  StocJcs.  If  an  attempt  is  made  to  in- 
sert buds  in  old  stems  or  trunks,  it  will  be  found  a  diffi- 
cult task  to  perform  by  the  shield  method,  with  an  inverted 
T  incision.  The  bark  may  separate  readily  from  the  wood, 
but  even  then,  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  lift  it  away 
to  allow  the  insertion  of  the  bud,  being  quite  thick  and 
brittle,  it  generally  breaks  or  cracks.  But  buds  may  be 
inserted  by  using  a  curved  incision.  Angular  budwood, 
as  shown  in  fig.  48  should  be  chosen.  From  this,  buds  are 
removed  as  already  directed,  but  the  stick  is  held  with 
the  bud  well  to  one  side  so  that  when  the  bud  is  cut  off  it 
is  either  at  the  left  or  the  right  side  of  the  shield  instead  of 
being  in  the  center.  Then  the  curved  incision  is  made  in 
the  stock  to  right  or  left  to  suit  the  bud.  The  bark  is 
then  carefully  lifted  and  the  bud  inserted  and  tied,  leav- 
ing the  bud  well  out  at  the  side  of  the  curve.  This  method 
should  be  known  as  shield-budding  with  a  curved  incision. 

The  after  treatment  of  the  buds  is  the  same  as  in 
ordinary  shield-budding. 

GRAFTING. 

As  already  stated,  the  propagation  of  nursery  trees 
is  accomplished  almost  entirely  by  budding.  Grafting 
is  objectionable  in  this  line  of  work  because  it  cannot  be 
done  so  rapidly  and  besides  the  whole  top  of  the  stock 
is  often  wasted,  whereas,  in  budding,  if  the  bud  fails  to  take, 
a  second  attempt  may  be  made  shortly  afterwards  on  the 
same  stock. 

Nevertheless,  in  some  special  cases,  grafting  is  prefer- 
able to  budding.  Such  is  .often  the  case  in  working  over 
old  trees  which  have  been  frozen  back.  If  they  are  to  be 
budded,  some  time  must  elapse  before  the  buds  can  be 
inserted.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  wait  until  sprouts 


192 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


have  started  and  reached  sufficient  size,  but  such  trees 
can  be  crown-grafted  at  once,  thus  frequently  saving  a 
year's  time.  Trees  girdled  or  injured  by  mal-di-goma,  or 
in  other  ways,  may  frequently  be  saved  by  inarching  small 
trees  planted  close  to  the  diseased  one,  or  in  some  in- 
stances, a  number  of  sprouts  around  an  old  stump  may 
have  all  their  energies  directed  to  the  support  of  a  single 
top. 

METHODS. 

The  methods  which  will  be  found  most  useful  are 
those  known  as  cleft,  whip,  crown,  side-grafting  and 
inarching.  Grafting  may  be  done  somewhat  earlier  in 
spring  than  budding  or  it  may  be  done  any  time  during 
the  season  when  the  sap  is  moving.  Generally  speaking, 
however,  the  work  should  be  done  some  time  before  the 
end  of  June.  The  best  time  is  before  growth  starts. 

Cleft-Grafting.  It  may  in  some 
cases  be  desirable  to  work  citrus 
trees  by  this  method  and  it  will  be 
found  useful  in  working  large 
trunks,  branches  or  old  sprouts. 
The  stock  is  cut  off  at  right  angles 
and  the  cut  surface  made  perfectly 
smooth.  Then  it  is  split  or  cleft 
open,  using  either  a  budding  knife 
(fig.  46)  or  a  grafting  iron  (fig. 
47)  and  the  mallet.  Frequently 
the  line  of  cleavage  in  orange  wood 
is  very  irregular,  hence  it  is  best 
Fig.  49  cieft-grafting.  A,  to  drive  the  knife  or  iron  in  on  the 

cion.       B,      cions      inserted 

ready  for  tieing.  gj(je  of  the  stock  before  splitting  it. 

This  will  leave  a  smooth,  straight  surface  for  the  cion. 
After  making  the  cleft,  it  may  be  held  open  with  the  wedge 


PROPAGATION   OF   CITRUS    TREES.  393 

end  of  the  grafting  iron,  or,  if  a  knife  is  used,  by  a  wooden 
wedge  prepared  for  the  purpose.  The  cions  should  have 
three  or  four  buds  and  should  be  four  or  five  inches  in 
length.  Prepare  them  by  trimming  the  lower  end  to  a 
wedge  (fig.  49)  with  the  outer  edge  slightly  wider  than 
the  inner.  The  sloping  cuts  should  be  about  one  and 
a  half  inches  long.  Slip  the  cion  down  into  the  cleft 
until  the  whole  of  the  cut  surface  is  within  the  cleft 
(fig.  49.)  The  thicker  edge  should  be  outside,  so  that 
the  stock  may  bring  the  cambium  edges  more  intimately 
in  contact  by  its  pressure  against  it.  If  the  stock  be 
large,  two  cions  may  be  inserted,  one  in  each  side  of  the 
cleft.  After  inserting  the  cion  or  cions,  the  stock  should 
be  firmly  bound  with  strips  of  waxed  cloth.  The  cut 
surface  should  be  covered  over  with  grafting  wax  to  pre- 
vent loss  of  moisture.  If  the  top  of  the  cion  has  been  cut 
off  it  should  also  be  covered  with  a  little  of  the  wax.  If 
the  cion  has  been  inserted  below  the  ground,  the  earth 
should  be  heaped  up  around  it,  covering  all  except  the 
last  bud.  No  further  attention  is  needed  until  growth 
starts,  at  which  time  the  bandage  should  be  severed,  either 
in  the  space  between  the  cions  where  two  have  been  in- 
serted, or  in  case  only  one  has  been  put  in,  then  on  the 
side  opposite  it.  The  growing  shoot  should  be  tied  as 
directed  under  budding. 

This  method  is  one  of  the  best  to  use  in  top- working 
trees,  when  it  is  desired  to  change  from  one  variety  to  an- 
other. In  hot,  dry  climates,  the  removal  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  sheltering  leaves  and  twigs  leaves  the  trunk  and 
main  branches  exposed  to  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun.  This 
will  result  in  serious  injury  to  the  exposed  parts.  A 
very  satisfactory  protection  can  be  afforded  by  a  thin 
coating  of  whitewash,  applied  with  a  spray  pump. 


194 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Fig.  50  Whip-grafting. 
A,  stock.  B,  cions.  C,  stock 
and  cion  placed  together 
ready  for  tieing. 


Whip-Grafting.     This  method   may   be  used   on   small 

stocks,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or 

less  in  diameter.     It  is  best  that  the 

stock  and  cion  be  of  the  same  size, 

but  if  such  is  not  the  case,  the  stock 

should  always  be  the  larger.  A  slop- 
ing cut,  an  inch  and  a  half  long  is 

made    diagonally    across    the    stock 

(fig.   50).     A   corresponding   cut   is 

made  on  the  cion    (fig.   50)    and   a 

tongue  of  wood  is  raised  about  the 

center  of  each  cut  with  the  knife  held 

almost  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the 

wood.     The  tongue  is  raised  a  little 

on  both  stock  and  cion  and  the  two 

are  gently  but  firmly  shoved  to- 
gether (fig.  50).  Then  the  point  of  union  is  securely 

bound  with  a  strip  of  waxed 
cloth.  The  after-treatment  is 
the  same  as  for  cleft-grafting. 
Crown-Grafting.  This 
method  is  one  of  the 
best  for  working  trees  which 
have  been  frozen  back  or  for 
working  large  trunks  at  the 
ground.  The  trunk  is  cut 
squarely  off  at  or  somewhat 
below  the  ground  and  the  cut 
surface  is  made  smooth  with 
a  knife.  If  the  outline  of  the 
Fig.  6i.™  A,  cion  Pre-  trunk  is  irregular,  as  is  fre- 

pared.    B,  cion  inserted  in  concave  part.     nilpntlv       flip       naep        rrnifflVP 
C,  cion  inserted  in  convex  part.  ITV  se? 

places  should  be  chosen  for 


PROPAGATION  OF  CITRUS  TREES. 


195 


inserting  the  cions.  With  the  point  of  a  budding  knife, 
gently  spring  the  bark  back.  In  cases  where  this  cannot 
be  done,  it  may  be  necessary  to  slit  the  bark  down  a  dis- 
tance of  an  inch  or  so  and  then  lift  the  bark.  The  cion 
is  prepared  by  making  a  single  sloping  cut  one  and  one- 
half  inches  in  length  at  the  base.  The  cion  should  be 
tapered  off  thin  and  smooth.  Then  it  is  inserted  between 
the  bark  and  wood  of  the  stock  with  cut  surface  inward. 
Sometimes  a  number  of  cions  may  be  set  around  the 
crown.  Then  firmly  tie  in  place  and  cover  the  cut  sur- 
face of  the  stock  with  grafting  wax. 

Side-  Graf  ting.  This  method  is 
also  known  as  sprig-budding, 
but  since  it  is  more  properly 
a  method  of  grafting,  the 
former  name  is  the  better  one. 
For  working  old  stock  with 
thick,  hard  bark,  it  possesses 
the  same  advantages  as  the 
method  of  shield-budding 
with  a  curved  incision.  The 
method  is  also  useful  when 
small,  slender  twigs  are  the 

I  lg.     •  •-'.        S  ii  I*1 

only  ones  available  for  propa-  grafting,   showing 

mode    of    inserting 

gating  work.  tne  sraft- 

An  oblique  curved  cut  is  made  in 
the  side  of  the  stock  in  such  a  posi- 
tion as  will  place  the  cion,  when  in- 
serted, at  an  angle  of  about  30  de- 
grees with  the  line  of  the  trunk.  The 
bark  is  then  separated  gently  from 
^e  wood:  The  cion  is  prepared  with 

cut.       Tt   IS  best  to   Cut 


53.  marching.  A,  cion 
ESS  fwitriping8tc°uctk 

inserted   ready   for 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


rather  deep  at  first  then 
bring  the  knife  out  almost 
straight  to  the  end  of  the  cion 
(Fig.  51).  The  cion  is  then 
inserted  and  tied  in  place 
(fig.  52).  When  the  parts 
have  united,  the  stock  must 
be  lopped  or  cut  off  as  in 
shield-budding. 

Inarching.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  method  have 
already  been  pointed  out. 
The  work  is  accomplished 
thus : 

All  branches  are  removed 
from  the  shoot  or  small  tree 
and  the  top  is  cut  off  with  a 
sloping  cut  about  two  inches 
in  length  (fig.  53).  Then  in 
the  side  of  the  larger  tree  at 
the  right  distance  above  the 
ground  an  inverted  T  incis- 
ion is  made  (fig.  53),  and  the 
corners  formed  by  the  inter- 
secting cuts  are  turned  back  as  in  shield-budding.  The 
prepared  end  of  the  shoot  or  tree  is  inserted  in  the 
cut  (fig.  53),  and  firmly  tied  in  place.  All  the  incisions 
are  then  carefully  covered  with  wax.  The  bandage  should 
not  be  disturbed  until  union  has  taken  place  and  the  parts 
have  firmly  knitted. 

Other  methods  of  working  may  be  used,  for  citrus 
trees  are  very  tractable  subjects,  but  those  given  in  this 
chapter  are  all  that  are  of  practical  importance  and  all 
the  grower  need  know. 


Fig.  54.  Three  sprouts  inarched 
into  the  main  trunk  of  an  orange 
tree. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES. 

The  more  important  stocks  and  those  most  commonly 
used  in  propagating  citrus  trees  are  sour  orange,  pomelo, 
sweet  orange,  rough  lemon,  trifoliate  orange  and  occas- 
ionally the  lime.  The  Otaheite  orange  is  sometimes  used, 
particularly  in  the  production  of  dwarf  specimens,  but 
for  general  orchard  purposes  it  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
Not  all  the  above  stocks  are  adapted  to  the  same  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  climate,  and  it  cannot  be  said  that  any 
one  of  them  is  best  for  all  conditions.  It  follows  that  the 
prospective  planter  should  be  acquainted  with  their  rel- 
ative merits  for  different  localities,  and  should  at  the 
same  time  be  thoroughly  informed  in  regard  to  the  soil, 
climatic  and  other  conditions  in  the  region  in  which  he 
intends  to  plant.  Unless  this  be  the  case,  mistakes  may 
be  made  which  otherwise  might  be  avoided.  For  instance, 
it  would  be  poor  policy  to  plant  citrus  trees  on  sweet 
stock,  on  low  ground,  where  they  are  likely  to  be  attacked 
by  mal-di-goma,  and  it  would  be  equally  foolish  to  plant 
trifoliate  orange  stock  on  dry  shell  ridges.  Besides,  the 
question  of  adaptation  to  certain  soil  and  climatic  condi- 
tions, the  mutual  influence  of  the  stock  and  cion  must 
not  be  entirely  overlooked.  That  such  an  influence  is 
exerted  cannot  be  doubted,  but  its  extent  still  remains 
to  be  investigated.  Among  the  influences  to  which  atten- 
tion will  be  called  later  on  are  those  affecting  the  hardi- 
ness, the  rate  of  growth,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  top, 
the  precocity  and  prolificness  of  the  tree,  the  time  of  rip- 
ening and  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  the  relative  amount 
of  juice  and  rind  in  the  fruit  and  the  amount  of  acid  and 


198  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

consequently  the  flavor.  Not  all  of  these  effects  are  notic- 
able  in  all  varieties  and  only  here  and  there  are  they  suf- 
ficiently marked  to  attract  attention.  But  if  differences 
stand  out  prominently  here  and  there,  it  is  not  unreason 
able  to  suppose  that  they  exist  in  some  degree  in  many 
other  instances  to  which  attention  has  not  been  directed. 

SOUR    ORANGE     (C.    VULGARIS). 

Next  to  the  trifoliate  orange,  the  sour  is  the  hardi- 
est of  all  the  varieties  or  species  of  citrus  trees  used  as 
stocks.  As  compared  with  C.  trifoliata,  it  is  not  nearly 
so  hardy,  but  it  is  considerably  hardier  than  the  sweet 
orange.  Of  course,  a  very  low  temperature  causes  all 
differences  in  hardiness  between  sweet  and  sour  orange 
trees  to  disappear  and  after  such  periods  of  cold  no  dif- 
ference can  be  detected,  but  the  fact  remains  that  a  degree 
of  cold  which  frequently  injures  the  sweet  orange  has 
no  effect  on  the  sour.  Sufficient  cold  to  destroy  the  young 
growth  and  defoliate  sweet  orange  trees  does  little  or  no 
injury  to  the  sour  orange.  It  is  impossible  to  state  the 
relative  hardiness  in  so  many  degrees,  as  so  much  depends 
upon  the  condition  of  the  trees, 

The  roots  of  the  sour  orange  are  produced  abundantly 
and  penetrate  well  into  the  soil.  In  this  respect  it  pos- 
sesses an  advantage  over  the  sweet  stock  for  some  dis- 
tricts in  that  it  is  not  so  readily  affected  by  variations 
in  moisture.  The  roots  penetrate  sufficiently  deep  to  be 
in  contact  with  a  more  or  less  permanent  water  supply. 

Sour  orange  stock  is  not  subject  to  the  attacks  of 
mal-di-goma,  and  in  Europe  where  this  disease  worked 
great  havoc  years  ago,  the  groves  have  again  been  built 
up  by  using  sour  orange  stock.  On  soils  subject  to  the 
disease  it  is  a  safe  stock  to  use.  The  sour  orange  tree  is 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  199 

very  much  subject  to  "scab/'  a  disease  which  attacks  the 
fruit,  leaves  and  young  twigs.  It  is  frequently  a  serious 
drawback  in  the  production  of  stocks  for  budding,  as 
noted  in  the  section  on  diseases.  But  such  citrus  as  are 
not  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  the  disease  are  in  no 
wise  rendered  susceptible  by  being  worked  on  sour  stock. 

Sour  stock  sprouts  readily,  if  the  top  be  frozen  back, 
thus  giving  an  opportunity  for  re-budding.  It  is  best 
adapted  to  soils  containing  a  liberal  supply  of  moisture 
and  its  natural  habitat,  if  one  can  judge  from  its  behav- 
ior in  Florida  as  an  introduced  tree,  is  the  shores  of  lakes 
and  the  banks  of  rivers  where  the  soil  is  liberally  supplied 
with  water  and  humus.  On  dry  soil,  trees  worked  on  sour 
stock  do  not  grow  so  rapidly  and  do  not  reach  the  same 
size  as  when  rough  lemon  stock  is  used.  In  general,  it 
may  be  said  that  it  is  best  adapted  to  high  and  low  ham- 
mock and  flat  woods  land  in  Florida,  to  the  low  lands 
of  Louisiana  and  to  all  soils  where  a  good  supply  of  mois- 
ture is  present  or  to  which  a  liberal  amount  can  be  given. 
Almost  from  the  first  cropping,  the  fruit  borne  by  trees 
worked  on  sour  stock  is  of  good  quality,  a  statement  which 
is  not  generally  true  of  trees  worked  on  rough  lemon. 
During  the  first  years  of  fruiting,  trees  on  sour  orange 
stock  are  not  quite  so  fruitful  as  those  on  some  other 
stocks,  but  this  difference  disappears  as  the  trees  become 
older.  In  very  old  trees  worked  on  sour  stock,  it 
will  sometimes  be  noted  that  the  sweet  trunk  is  enlarged 
above  the  point  of  union,  having  in  some  measure  out 
grown  the  sour  root.  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that 
wherever  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  suited  to 
its  best  growth  and  development,  it  is  a  most  satisfactory 
stock  to  use  and  its  resistance  to  the  attacks  of  the 
dreaded  mal-di-goma  is  a  strong  point  in  its  favor. 


200  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

As  a  stock  for  the  Satsuma,  the  sour  orange  is  a 
failure.  When  worked  on  sour  stock,  this  variety  makes 
a  stunted,  unsatisfactory  growth;  in  short,  it  is  a  total 
failure.  Why  this  should  be  so  it  is  difficult  to  say,  but 
for  some  reason  or  other  the  union  is  decidedly  uncongen- 
ial. In  certain  cases  the  same  condition  is  noted  when 
the  stock  is  used  for  kumquats,  but  in  the  majority  of 
instances  it  is  quite  satisfactory. 

ROUGH    LEMON     (C.    LJMONUM). 

The  rough  lemon  tree  is  not  so  hardy  as  the  sweet 
orange  and  is  more  liable  to  damage  by  cold  than  the  pom- 
elo. Of  all  the  stocks  commonly  used  for  citrus  trees  it 
is  the  most  susceptible  to  damage  by  cold  and  hence  can- 
not be  expected  to  increase  the  hardiness  of  the  top,  but 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  inclined  to  make  it  less  hardy.  In 
southern  Florida  it  grows  wild  and  appears  to  be  per- 
fectly adapted  to  its  surroundings,  but  it  is  not  found  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  being  much  too  tender 
to  stand  the  climate  of  the  more  exposed  sections  unless 
protection  is  afforded. 

The  main  roots  of  this  stock  show  a  wide  variation. 
In  all  instances  the  crown  roots  extend  a  good  distance 
from  the  trunk  and  a  good  tap  root  is  produced.  But  in 
some  individuals,  here  and  there,  these  large  lateral  roots 
lie  quite  close  to  the  surface  and  most  of  the  feeding  roots 
are  in  the  top  fifteen  inches  of  soil.  On  the  other  hand, 
most  trees  worked  on  this  stock  have  the  roots  well  dis- 
tributed through  the  soil.  A  root  system  of  this  kind 
is  particularly  desirable  for  dry  soils  and  for  those  which 
need  irrigation. 

Rough  lemon  stock  is  capable  of  inducing  a  more 
rapid  growth  in  the  top  worked  on  it  than  any  other  kind 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  201 

of  stock  now  used  for  citrus  trees  in  America.  For  this 
reason  and  because  of  the  great  foraging  power  of  its 
roots,  it  is  an  excellent  stock  for  use  on  high,  dry  soils 
or  on  those  containing  a  small  amount  of  plant  food,  or 
on  soils  where  the  plant  food  is  not  readily  obtained  be- 
cause of  some  undesirable  soil  condition.  For  planting 
on  low  ground,  sour  orange  stock  is  preferable,  and  on 
this  class  of  soils  rough  lemon  should  never  be  used  for  the 
kumquat.  Attention  is  called  to  this  point  in  Bulletin  65 
of  the  Florida  Exp.  Station  in  the  following  words : 

"A  number  of  kumquats  on  rough  lemon  stock  planted 
on  rather  moist  ground  have  come  under  personal  obser- 
vation in  which  it  was  found  that  there  was  a  more  or 
less  copious  flow  of  gum  from  the  region  just  above  the 
union  of  the  stock  and  cion.  In  all  cases  where  this  oc- 
curred it  appeared  that  the  cion  was  the  only  part  affected. 
The  trees  were  in  an  unhealthy  condition.  The  diseased 
condition,  if  we  may  so  designate  it,  did  not  appear  to  be 
mal-di-goma,  though  in  some  respects  it  resembled  it. 
The  trouble  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  the  great 
foraging  power  of  the  roots  enabled  them  to  collect,  in 
certain  soils,  more  food  than  the  less  rapidly  growing 
top  could  readily  assimilate." 

"On  the  other  hand,  on  soils  containing  less  moisture 
and  presumably  less  fertility,  a  number  of  trees  budded 
upon  rough  lemon  roots  have  been  examined  which  were 
vigorous  and  perfectly  healthy.  If  one  desires  to  use 
the  rough  lemon  stock  for  the  kumquat  on  some  soils 
the  best  plan  would  be  to  adopt  the  method  used  quite 
extensively  by  C.  W.  Butler,  St.  Petersburg,  Fla.  His 
practice  is  to  insert  kumquat  buds  in  sprouts  from  rough 
lemon  roots  which  already  support  and  feed  a  sweet  or 
mandarin  orange  top.  A  perfectly  healthy  union  is  se- 


202  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

cured  in  all  cases,  as  most  of  the  food  gathered  by  the 
roots  is  used  by  the  larger  and  more  vigorous  top. 
Strange  to  say,  however,  the  kumquat  frequently  outstrips 
the  other  top,  sweet  or  mandarin  orange  as  the  case  may 
be,  in  growth  in  height." 

Generally  the  first  crop  or  two  of  fruit  produced  by 
trees  worked  on  this  stock  is  thick-skinned  and  deficient 
in  juice,  because  so  much  food  is  collected  by  the  roots. 
After  one  or  two  seasons  of  fruiting  have  passed,  this 
undesirable  feature  disappears  and  the  fruit  produced 
is  equal  in  quantity  of  juice  and  thinness  of  rind  to  that 
borne  by  trees  worked  on  any  other  stock. 

Kough  lemon  stock  usually  influences  the  shape  and 
growth  of  the  variety  worked  on  it.  There  is  a  pronounced 
tendency  toward  the  production  of  tall,  upright  branches 
in  the  center  of  the  top.  This  tendency  will  correct  itself 
after  a  time,  or,  if  deemed  necessary,  these  upright 
branches  may  be  cut  back  somewhat,  to  assist  in  the  form- 
ation of  a  compact,  symmetrical  head. 

Whether  rough  lemon  stock  has  any  marked  influ- 
ence on  the  fruit,  beyond  that  already  mentioned,  is  rather 
difficult  to  say.  Still  the  indications  are  that  it  increases 
the  size  of  the  fruit  and  the  acid  content  as  well.  In  the 
winter  of  1902  two  samples  of  fruit  were  picked  from 
adjoining  trees  of  the  same  variety  in  the  grove  of  C.  T. 
McCarty,  Eldred,  Florida,  the  one  worked  on  rough  lemon 
and  the  other  on  sour  orange.  The  difference  in  acid 
content  was  distinctly  appreciable  to  the  taste  and  as 
the  fruit  was  fully  matured,  it  Avas  thought  well  to  have 
the  two  samples  analyzed.  This  was  done  by  Prof.  H.  K. 
Miller,  of  the  Florida  Experiment  Station.  The  speci- 
mens grown  on  sour  orange  stock  contained  .72  per  cent 
acid  and  9.8  per  cent  sugar  determined  as  dextrose  in  the 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  203 

juice;  those  on  the  rough  lemon  .91  per  cent  acid  and 
7.24  per  cent  sugar  determined  as  dextrose,  a  difference 
of  .19  per  cent  acid  and  2.56  per  cent  sugar.  Too  much 
weight  must  not  be  laid  on  these  results,  as  many  analyses 
should  be  made  to  establish  any  difference  which  may 
exist. 

This  stock  has  a  marked  influence  om  the  fruitfulness 
of  the  Bahia  navel  orange  in  Florida.  It  is  much  more 
prolific  on  rough  lemon  stock  and  with  the  exception  of 
C.  trifoliata,  it  is  the  only  stock  which  can  be  recom- 
mended for  the  variety  in  that  State.  As  a  stock  for  pom- 
elos and  the  oranges  of  the  mandarin  group,  it  is  preferred 
by  some  growers  to  all  others.  Rough  lemon  is  resistant 
against  the  attacks  of  mal-di-goma,  or  foot-rot,  in  this 
respect  ranking  with  the  sour  orange. 

TRIFOLIATE    ORANGE    (C.    TRIFOLIATA). 

Perhaps  the  first  mention  of  this  species  as  a  stock 
for  citrus  trees  is  that  made  by  Mr.  Fortune,  who  in  1848 
said,  "The  kumquat  is  propagated  by  grafting  on  a 
prickly,  wild  species  of  citrus,  which  seems  of  a  more 
hardy  nature  than  the  kumquat  itself."  This  remark  un- 
doubtedly referred  to  the  trifoliate  orange.  The  tree  it- 
self was  described  and  illustrated  by  Kaempfer  in  his 
Amoenitatum  exoticarum  in  1712.  Undoubtedly  it  has 
been  used  for  ages  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  as  a  stock 
for  citrus  trees,  but  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  trees 
have  been  worked  on  this  stock  in  America.  Its  use  on 
any  extensive  scale  dates  back  only  about  eight  or  ten 
years,  but  even  yet  its  exact  limitation  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate have  not  been  fully  determined. 

Of  all  the  stocks  used  for  citrus  trees,  it  is  the  hardi 
est  and  it  has,  in  some  degree,  the  power  in  the  colder 


204  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

regions  of  imparting  to  many  varieties  worked  upon  it, 
some  of  its  own  hardiness.  While  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  point  of  union  between  the  stock  and  cion 
is  the  one  point  in  the  trunk  of  a  citrus  tree  most  sensi- 
tive to  cold,  still  this  point  of  union  may  be  protected 
and  thus  a  distinct  gain  in  ability  to  withstand  low  tem- 
peratures is  made.  Besides  imparting  to  the  cion  some 
of  its  ability  to  withstand  cold,  it  has  a  tendency  to 
retard  growth  in  spring.  C.  trifoliata  has  been  known 
to  withstand  a  temperature  below  zero,  a  temperature 
sufficiently  low  to  establish  the  claim  that  it  is  not  in- 
jured by  severe  cold.  This  claim  would  be  worthless,  how- 
ever, were  it  not  distinctly  periodic  in  its  growth  and, 
moreover,  it  is  not  responsive  to  sudden  changes  of  temper- 
ature during  the  dormant  period. 

As  a  general  rule  those  trees  which  reach  their  max- 
imum development  in  cold  or  comparatively  cold  climates 
cannot  be  transferred  to  distinctly  tropical  or  sub-tropical 
climates  and  there  grown  successfully.  Now,  since  the 
trifoliate  orange  succeeds  admirably  and  appears  to  be 
well  adapted  to  regions  distinctly  outside  the  tropical 
isotherm,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  advisable  to  use  it 
as  a  stock  in  regions  removed  from  all  effects  of  frost. 
In  view  of  this  fact,  it  would  be  unsafe  to  recommend 
it  as  a  stock  for  use  in  the  Islands,  and  on  the  whole  it 
is  safest  to  use  it  only  in  the  colder  regions.  In  southern 
California  it  is  not  likely  to  prove  satisfactory,  except  at 
comparatively  high  altitudes.  It  has  proved  quite  satis- 
factory in  northern  Florida  and  also  in  Louisiana  and 
Texas. 

The  trifoliate  orange  should  not  be  used  as  a  stock 
on  high,  dry  or  calcareous  soils.  For  such  situations,  it 
is  a  failure.  It  grows  well  and  vigorously  on  good  flat 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  205 

woods  and  hammock  land  in  Florida  and  it  appears  to 
be  well  adapted  to  this  class  of  soils.  Plantings  should 
be  made  on  this  stock  only  on  these  classes  of  soils  or  on 
those  correspondingly  well  supplied  with  moisture  and 
capable  of  retaining  it.  In  California  it  is  said  to  succeed 
well  on  alkali  lands  and  Mr.  C.  H.  Shime,  of  the  Califor- 
nia Experiment  Station,  recommends  it  for  planting  in 
such  localities. 

So  far  as  known  this  stock  is  not  subject  to  mal-di- 
goma,  and  in  some  of  the  world's  citrus  districts  it  is 
used  as  a  resistant  stock.*  It  is  sometimes  quite  severely 
infested  with  San  Jose  scale.  This  does  not  interfere 
with  its  use  as  a  stock  as  the  other  species  of  citrus  are 
free  from  this  scale. 

The  root  system  produced  by  the  trifoliate  orange 
is  very  good.  The  roots  penetrate  well  into  the  soil  and 
fibrous  roots  are  produced  abundantly. 

When  supplied  with  a  vigorous  top,  the  root  becomes 
more  vigorous,  and,  strange  to  say,  not  a  single  case  has 
come  under  observation  where  the  stock  did  not  outgrow 
any  variety  worked  on  it.  The  trifoliate  root  is  larger 
just  below  the  point  of  union  than  the  cion  trunk  is  just 
above.  This  goes  to  show  that  the  stock  is  influenced  by 
the  top  and  made  to  grow  much  more  vigorously  than 
might  be  expected.  The  diameter  of  worked  trifoliate 
trunks  just  below  the  point  of  union  greath7  exceeds  that 
of  seedling  trifoliate  trees  of  equal  age  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Many  writers  on  citrus  propagation  have  stated  with- 
out reservation  that  C.  trifoliata  stock  dwarfs  the  top 
worked  upon  it.  Exception  must  be  taken  to  the  breadth 


Ed.   Gardener's  Chronicle,   27:270,  Ap.,   1900. 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  207 

of  this  statement.  It  is  not  always  true.  Some  varieties 
of  citrus  appear  to  grow  as  rapidly  and  attain  as  large 
a  size  when  propagated  on  trifoliate  orange  stock  as  they 
do  on  sour  or  sweet.  It  will  be  found,  however,  that  the 
fruit  borne  on  young  trees  worked  on  trifoliate  orange 
is  usually  superior  in  quality  to  that  borne  on  trees 
budded  on  most  other  stocks,  and  it  may  be  added  that 
they  are  decidedly  more  precocious  and  prolific. 

The  most  extensive  set  of  experiments  which  have 
been  made  to  determine  the  relative  merits  of  O.  trifoliata 
and  other  stocks  are  those  which  were  started  and  are 
still  being  carried  on  by  G.  L.  Taber,  of  Glen  St.  Mary, 
Fla.  The  results  of  the  experiments  for  the  years  1901 
and  1902  were  published  in  the  Florida  Farmer  and  Fruit 
Grower.  The  results  of  this  work  are  given  herewith. 
The  soil  on  which  the  experiment  was  instituted  lies  about 
half  way  between  flat  woods  and  high  pine  land.  The 
sub-soil  is  clay  at  a  depth  of  about  eighteen  inches  and 
the  land  is  well  supplied  with  moisture. 

TRIFOLIATE,     SWEET    AND    SOUR. 

FRUITFULNESS    OF    THE    ORANGE    ON    THESE    STOCKS. 
Editor  Farmer  and  Fruit-Grower: 

Having  received  a  great  many  inquiries  as  to  the  behavior 
of  orange  trees  budded  upon  Citrus  trifoliate  stock,  I  have  gone 
over  my  test  orchard,  planted  two  years  ago,  and  made  careful 
memoranda,  which  are  herewith  submitted: 

I  have  heretofore  given  some  account  of  this  test  orchard, 
but  would  say  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  do  not  remember 
the  conditions  under  which  it  was  planted,  that  the  trees  were 
set  out  in  March,  1899,  on  absolutely  wild  land  that  had  never 
been  touched  with  a  plow.  Holes  were  dug  in  the  wiregrass 
sod,  and  a  moderate  application  of  lime  was  mixed  with  the 
earth  where  the  trees  were  to  be  planted.  This  was  done  three 


208  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

or  four  weeks  ahead  of  time  of  planting.  At  the  time  of  plant- 
ing we  used  about  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizer to  each  tree,  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  earth. 

A    TEST     ORCHARD. 

The  test  orchard  planted  in  this  way  consisted  of  four  trees, 
each  of  many  of  the  most  prominent  varieties  of  oranges  and  pom- 
elos. Half  of  the  trees  planted  were  upon  Citrus  trifoliata  stock, 
and  the  other  half  upon  sour  and  sweet  stocks — mostly  sour. 
In  planting,  the  trees  upon  sour  and  Citrus  trifoliate  were  in- 
terspersed, one  being  on  sour,  the  next  on  trifoliata,  the  next 
on  sour,  and  the  next  on  trifoliata,  so  that  neither  the  trees 
on  sour  nor  those  on  trifoliata  have  any  benefit  of  any  varia- 
tion in  quality  of  land,  should  any  exist,  throughout  the  orchard. 
The  trees  were  planted  thirty  feet  apart  each  way,  in  order  to 
give  each  tree  the  benefit  of  all  the  ground  that  it  could  utilize 
and  to  make  the  test  as  thorough  as  possible. 

The  trees  that  were  planted  had  been  dug  and  heeled  in  just 
previous  to  the  unprecedented  freeze  of  February  12,  1899,  dur- 
ing which  the  thermometer  went  to  ten  degrees  above  zero.  All 
of  the  trees  had  their  tops  severely  frozen  back,  and  when  we 
came  to  plant,  the  majority  of  the  trees  showed  but  a  few  inches 
to  a  foot  of  live  wood  above  the  bud.  Planting  frozen-back  trees 
on  absolutely  wild,  sour  land  is  not,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, a  commendable  project,  and  would  hardly  have  been 
done  in  this  instance  except  for  the  purpose  of  inaugurating 
at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  a  test  orchard  that  should  show 
the  comparative  growth,  productiveness,  hardiness,  time  of  rip- 
ening, etc.,  of  all  the  prominent  varieties  on  sour  and  Citrus 
trifoliata  stocks. 

The  tabulated  statement  herewith  given  was  made  June  20. 
1901,  twenty-seven  months  after  the  trees  were  planted.  In  ob- 
taining the  height,  breadth  and  number  of  fruits  each  tree  was 
accurately  measured  and  the  fruits  carefully  counted;  and  the 
result  given  is  the  average  of  two  trees,  except  in  a  very  few 
instances,  where  one  tree  of  a  variety  had  died  and  had  to  be 
replaced  a  year  later.  In  such  cases  the  comparisons  are  be- 
tween one  tree  each  of  sour  and  Citrus  trifoliata. 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  209 

ORANGES. 

No.   Of 

Variety  Stock.     H'ght.     Br'dth.       Fr't. 


Bessie    

Sour 

61-2 

71-2 

0 

Bessie    

C.    T. 

4 

51-2 

58 

Centennial    

Sour 

6 

71-2 

1 

Centennial    

C.  T. 

41-2 

41-2 

87 

Du   Roi    

Sweet 

61-2 

51-2 

0 

Du  Roi    

C.  T. 

61-2 

7 

61 

Early   Oblong    

Sour 

61-2 

7 

0 

Early  Oblong    

C.  T. 

51-2 

61-2 

95 

Hart's  Late    

Sour. 

61-2 

8 

3 

Hart's  Late    

C.   T. 

4 

5 

44 

Homosassa     

Sour 

6 

71-2 

4 

Homosassa    

C.    T. 

61-2 

51-2 

26 

Jaffa    

Sour 

61-2 

61-2 

0 

Jaffa    

C.    T. 

51-2 

6 

34 

King    

Sour 

81-2 

5 

81 

King    

C.   T. 

8 

5 

281 

Mad.   Vinous    

Sour 

7 

B 

4 

Mad.  Vinous   

C.  T. 

61-2 

8 

36 

Magnum   Bonum    

Sweet 

7 

7 

0 

Magnum  Bonum    

C.  T. 

5 

6 

9 

Majorca    

Sour 

6 

5 

0 

Majorca    

C.    T. 

5 

4 

4 

Maltese  Blood    

Sour 

5 

5 

0 

Maltese  Blood   

C.  T. 

31-2 

31-2 

35 

Maltese  Oval   

Sweet 

51-2 

61-2 

96 

Maltese   Oval    

C.    T. 

31-2 

41-2 

62 

Nonpareil     

Sour 

61-2 

71-2 

0 

Nonpareil    

C.   T. 

6 

61-2 

50 

Old   Vini    

Sour 

61-2 

61-2 

4 

Old  Vini   

C.  T. 

4 

5 

44 

Pineapple    

Sour 

51-2 

6 

0 

Pineapple   

C.   T. 

51-2 

5 

41 

Ruby    

......    Sour 

6 

41-2 

0 

Ruby    

C.   T. 

41-2 

31-2 

38 

St.   Michael's  Blood    

Sour 

5 

4 

0 

St.   Michael's   Blood    

C.    T. 

31-2 

51-2 

75 

Tangerine    

Sweet 

6 

5 

43 

210  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


Variety. 
Tangerine    

Stock. 
C    T 

H'ght. 
4  1-2 

Br'dth. 

5 

No.  01 
Fr't. 

78 

Washington    Navel 

.  .                  Sour 

5  1-2 

6  1-2 

o 

Washington  Navel    .  .  . 

C.   T. 

3  1-2 

4  1-2 

32 

Duncan    

POMELOS. 

Sour 

5 

7 

60 

Duncan  

Sour 

6 

7 

27 

Marsh  Seedless 

Sour 

7 

7  1-2 

10 

Marsh  Seedless 

C    T 

3 

4  1-2 

33 

Triumph     

Sweet 

7  1-2 

6  1-2 

0 

TriuniDh    . 

.    C.   T. 

6 

6 

75 

TABULATED    STATEMENT. 

Recapitulation  of  the  above  figures  shows  that  of  the  twenty- 
three  varieties  above  named  thirteen  on  sour  stock  failed  to 
hold  any  fruit  this  year,  while  on  Citrus  trifoliata  the  whole 
twenty- three  have  fruit  on.  The  average  number  of  fruits  on 
the  whole  number  of  trees  on  sour  stock  is  thirteen,  and  the 
average  number  on  Citrus  trifoliata  is  fifty-seven.  The  aver- 
age excess  of  height  of  trees  on  sour  over  those  on  trifoliata 
is  one  and  one-fourth  feet,  and  the  average  excess  of  breadth 
of  those  on  sour  over  those  on  trifoliata  is  one  foot. 

While  the  trees  average  larger  on  sour  than  on  trifoliata, 
yet  there  are  a  few  varieties  that  show  no  appreciable  differ- 
ence, and  two  of  the  varieties  show  actually  larger  on  Citrus 
trifoliata  than  on  sour  or  sweet.  One  of  these  is  Dti  Roi  orange 
and  the  other,  Duncan  pomelo.  A  few  of  the  other  varieties  are 
so  nearly  of  the  same  size  on  the  two  stocks  that  one  would 
have  trouble  in  designating  which  of  the  trees  were  on  sour  and 
which  on  Citrus  trifoliata  if  he  did  not  know.  Amongst  these 
sorts  are  King  and  Madam  Vinous.  In  the  whole  twenty-three 
varieties  there  are  only  two  in  which  the  trees  on  sour  stock 
show  an  excess  of  fruit  over  those  on  trifoliata.  These  are  Malt- 
ese Oval  orange  and  Duncan  pomelo.  In  the  former  there  are 
a  large  number  of  very  small  oranges  from  late  bloom  which 
are  not  noticeable  in  any  other  variety. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  all  of  the  trees  planted  were 
as  nearly  of  the  same  size  as  it  was  possible  to  obtain;  the  idea 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS   TREES.  211 

being  to  make  the  test  as  accurate  as  possible  in  every  particu- 
lar. For  instance,  in  the  pineapple  variety  we*  could  have  planted 
larger  trees  on  sour,  but  instead  of  doing  so  we  planted  the  same 
size  that  we  were  able  to  obtain  of  the  same  variety  upon  Citrus 
trifoliata.  In  another  part  of  the  orchard — entirely  independent 
of  the  test  part — we  planted  larger  trees  of  Pineapple  and  several 
other  varieties  upon  sour  stock  which  are  now  fruiting.  The 
comparisons  above  given  are  made  only  between  the  trees  that 
were  planted  side  by  side  for  test  purposes,  all  of  which  have 
been  given  the  same  treatment  in  every  particular.  In  another 
part  of  the  grove  we  have  both  Washington  Navel  and  Tangerine 
upon  Citrus  trifoliata  that  show  up  much  better  than  the  test 
trees;  but,  as  above  stated,  for  comparative  purposes  we  have 
confined  the  test  strictly  to  the  test  trees. 

A    SATSUMA    ORCHARD. 

In  this  particular  test  orchard  the  Satsuma  is  not  included 
from  the  fact  that  we  had  several  orchards  of  this  variety 
already  planted  upon  both  sweet  and  Citrus  trifoliata  stocks. 
A  comparison  of  two  of  these  orchards,  planted  in  the  winter 
of  97-98,  and  which  were,  of  course,  frozen  to  the  ground  in  the 
i'reeze  of  '99,  shows  the  following  averages:  The  Satsuma  on 
sweet,  height  six  feet,  breadth  eight  feet,  number  of  oranges, 
twenty;  Satsuma  on  trifoliata,  height  five  and  two-thirds  feet, 
breadth  six  and  two-thirds  feet;  number  of  oranges,  one  hundred. 

We  have  also  some  twenty  other  varieties  of  oranges  and 
pomelos  on  Citrus  trifoliate  in  orchards  that  were  planted  in 
'97-'98,  but  with  no  trees  on  sour,  side  by  side,  for  test  pur- 
poses. Of  these  older  trees,  Washington  Navel,  Tangerine,  Par- 
son Brown,  Homosassa,  Nonpareil,  Du  Roi  and  Madam  Vinous 
oranges  and  Duncan  pomelo  now  average  about  eight  feet  in 
height  and  the  same  in  breadth,  and  all  are  bearing  well.  The 
Washington  Navel  tree  is  carrying  seventy-nine  oranges. 

EARLY    BEARING    OP    TRIFOLIATA    STOCKS. 

One  thing  has  been  fully  determined  and  that  is  that  all 
varieties  come  into  bearing  at  a  very  early  age  when  budded 
upon  Citrus  trifoliate.  Another  thing  that  is  fully  determined 
is  that  the  fruit  from  trees  on  Citrus  trifoliata  roots  is  fully 


212  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

equal  in  quality  to  the  same  variety  on  sour  roots,  and  still 
another  thing  that  experience  has  proven  is  that  the  same  var- 
ieties ripen  earlier  in  the  season  upon  Citrus  trit'oliata  than 
upon  sour.  The  longevity  of  the  trees  on  Citrus  trifoliata,  the 
ultimate  size  that  they  will  attain  and  their  comparative  value, 
in  the  long  run,  with  those  on  sour,  remain  to  be  proven.  It 
is  probable  that  as  the  trees  get  older,  there  will  be  more  differ- 
ence in  size  between  trees  on  the  two  stocks  than  is  now  ap- 
parent. This  will  be  the  natural  consequence  of  the  trees  fruit- 
ing so  heavily  when  young.  This  smaller  ultimate  size  of  trees 
is  a  quality,  whether  advantageous  or  otherwise,  each  can  fig- 
ure out  for  himself.  It  admits  of  close  planting,  and  a  conse- 
quent heavy  crop  from  a  given  acreage.  It  is  also  probable  that 
some  varieties  will  show  more  affinity  for  the  trifoliata  stock 
than  others,  and  that  while  some  varieties  will  prove  perma- 
nently successful  on  this  stock,  others  may  not.  The  exact 
extent  to  which  extra  hardiness  is  induced  by  using  Citrus  tri- 
foliata stock  is  also  more  or  less  conjectural,  but  experience 
has  shown  that  the  claim  for  extra  hardiness  is  well  founded, 
with  certain  varieties.  Whether  it  will  prove  equally  so  with 
all  varieties  is  one  of  the  points  that  further  careful  comparisons 
in  the  test  orchard  must  determine.  The  test  orchard  estab- 
lished is  one  of  these  long  time  experiments  in  which  years 
must  pass  before  actual  definite  comparisons  can  be  made  that 
will  cover  all  the  points  involved. 

In  the  meantime  it  is  an  inspiriting  sight  to  see  the  trees 
on  Citrus  trifoliata  bearing  heavily,  not  only  in  the  orchard, 
but  in  the  nursery  rows,  and  it  suggests  promising  possibilities 
for  the  colder  sections  of  the  State;  with  thick  planting  and 
banking  of  the  trees  in  winter.  For  if  the  trees  are  frozen 
back  to  the  banking,  they  immediately  put  on  a  new  top  and 
come  into  bearing  again  very  soon.  In  my  own  orchards  and 
nurseries,  situated  at  Glen  St.  Mary,  in  northern  Florida,  within 
ten  miles  of  the  Georgia  line,  the  crop  for  this  year  is  estimated 
at  1,000  boxes.  All  of  the  trees  that  are  bearing  in  nursery, 
and  a  .large  proportion  of  those  in  orchard  are  upon  Citrus  tri- 
foliata stock. 

G.  L.  TABER. 

Glen  St.  Mary,  Fla.,  June  22,  1901. 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  213 

EXPERIMENTAL  GROVE. 

TREES    ON    SOUR    AND    CITRUS    TRIFOLJATA    STOCK. 

Editor  Farmer  and  Fruit-Grower: 

It  may  interest  your  readers  to  hear  how  my  test  orchard 
of  oranges  on  sour  and  Citrus  trifoliata  stocks  is  coming  on. 
I  made  a  report  on  this  one  year  ago,  and  now,  July  26,  1902, 
having  just  finished  the  annual  record  of  it  for  this  year,  will 
give  a  summary  of  the  results. 

The  experimental  grove  referred  to  was  planted  in  March, 
1899,  about  a  month  after  one  of  the  heaviest  freezes  that  Flor- 
ida ever  experienced — the  thermometer  having  gone  to  10  de- 
grees above  zero  at  my  place.  With  twenty  acres  of  grove  frozen 
to  the  banking  it  looked  a  little  like  tempting  Providence  to 
go  ahead  and  set  out  five  acres  additional  that  I  had  already 
planned,  but  that  was  what  I  did.  And  right  here  I  would  say 
that  the  conditions  under  which  this  five-acre  grove  was  planted 
were  far  from  ideal — in  more  ways  than  one.  In  the  first  place 
our  nursery  planting  for  the  season  had  overrun  my  estimate 
and  used  up  all  the  available  cleared  land,  and  the  grove,  if 
planted  at  all  that  spring  had  to  be  set  in  absolutely  wild,  un- 
broken pine  sod.  In  the  second  place  not  a  nursery  tree  in  my 
own,  nor  any  other  nursery  for  a  long  distance  south,  remained 
unfrozen — except  that  small  portion  of  the  bud  covered  by  the 
banking.  Interesting  conditions  under  which  to  place  a  grove, 
weren't  they? 

Although  five  acres  were  planted  that  spring,  as  per  above, 
there  were  really  but  a  little  over  two  acres  strictly  experi- 
mental. On  this  experimental  plot  were  planted  one  hundred 
orange  and  pomelo  trees,  twenty-five  varieties,  four  of  a  variety, 
half  on  sour  stock  and  half  on  Citrus  trifoliata  stock,  planted 
alternately  at  thirty  feet  apart  each  way.  Taking  Jaffa,  for 
instance;  the  first  tree  planted  was  on  sour,  the  second  on  C. 
trifoliata,  the  third  on  sour  and  the  fourth  on  C.  trifoliata. 
The  distance  of  thirty  feet  was  given  them  so  that  each  tree 
might  have  absolutely  all  the  room  it  wanted.  The  entire  or- 
chard has  received  the  same  treatment  in  the  way  of  fertili- 
zation and  cultivation,  and  the  experiment,  as  far  as  it  has 
progressed,  is  as  fair  a  one  as  it  is  possible  to  make.  A  part  of 


214  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  trees  of  two  varieties  of  the  twenty-five  had  to  be  reset,  leav- 
ing but  twenty-three  varieties — 92  trees — for  actual  comparison. 
It  would  require  too  much  space  to  give  exact  sizes  of  every 
tree  and  the  actual  number  of  oranges  on  each  tree,  although 
the  record  that  I  have  just  completed  shows  this.  Following  is 
a  summary  of  the  twenty-three  varieties: 

Average  height  trees  on  sour  stock,  8  feet,  2  inches. 

Average  breadth  trees  on  sour  stock,  9  feet,  2  inches. 

Average  height  trees  on  C.  trifoliata,  6  feet,  2  inches. 

Average  breadth  trees  on  C.  trifoliata,  7  feet. 

Adding  together  the  average  height  and  breadth  the  trees 
on  sour  stock  would  be  represented  by  17  feet,  4  inches. 

Adding  together  the  average  height  and  breadth  the  trees 
on  C.  trifoliata  would  be  represented  by  13  feet,  2  inches. 

Adding  the  actual  number  of  fruit  that  these  trees  are  now 
holding  to  the  number  they  produced  last  year,  and  dividing  by 
the  number  of  trees,  we  find  those  on  sour  have  a  total  aver- 
age of  69  oranges  per  tree  for  the  two  years,  and  those  on  C. 
trifoliata  have  93  oranges  to  the  tree  for  the  two  years — an  in- 
crease to  date  of  just  about  one-third  over  those  on  sour. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  these  trees  on  C.  trifoliata  will 
continue  indefinitely  to  produce  more  oranges  per  tree  than 
those  on  sour,  and  it  may  be  that  when  the  trees  on  sour  attain 
full  size  results  per  tree  will  be  in  favor  of  those  on  sour.  But, 
be  that  as  it  may,  here  is  a  point  that  is  generally  overlooked: 
by  setting  the  trees  on  C.  trifoliata  two-thirds  or  three-quarters 
as  far  apart  as  those  on  sour  the  number  of  trees  per  acre  is 
doubled.  This  is  about  the  comparative  distance  that  we  would 
recommend — one-quarter  to  one-third  less  distance  on  C.  trifol- 
iata than  would  be  given  those  on  sour.  As  above  stated,  this 
will  double  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  and,  figured  on  that 
basis,  the  result  so  far  would  have  been  an  increase  in  fruit 
of  270  per  cent  from  the  trees  on  C.  trifoliata  above  those  on 
sour  for  an  equal  acreage.  This,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the 
facFthat  trees  on  C.  trifoliata  can  be  frozen  to  the  banking  one 
year  out  of  three  and  still  produce  a  good  crop  of  fruit  one  year 
out  of  three,  proves  its  extra  advantages  for  frosty  sections, 
even  if  we  leave  out  entirely  the  question  of  hardiness.  Last 
winter  I  personally  picked  a  box  and  a  half  of  Ruby  oranges 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  215 

off  from  a  section  of  a  row  sixty  feet  long  of  two-year-old  nursery 
trees — trees  one  foot  apart  in  the  row.  I  am  not  at  all  sure 
but  what  these  trees  planted  four  to  six  feet  apart  in  the  rows 
and  rows  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  apart — to  leave  room  to  fertilize 
and  cultivate  one  way — would  be  a  good  investment.  The  fruit, 
for  the  first  few  years  at  least,  would  be  a  sight  to  behold. 

The  above  suggestion  is  perhaps  unfair  to  the  C.  trifoliata 
as  applied  to  all  varieties  budded  on  it,  from  the  fact  that 
several  years  of  experiment  prove  that  there  is  quite  a  distinct 
difference  in  the  varieties,  as  to  their  comparative  growth,  when 
budded  on  this  stock.  In  fact  out  of  the  twenty-three  varieties 
summarized  in  this  article  there  are  two  varieties  of  orange, 
Jaffa  and  King,  and  one  variety  of  pomelo,  Duncan,  that  actu- 
ally average  larger  on  C.  trifoliata  after  having  been  planted 
a  little  over  three  years  than  the  corresponding  varieties  on 
sour  alongside. 

In  addition  to  the  varieties  above  mentioned,  the  following 
on  C.  trifoliata  compare  well,  as  regards  growth,  with  those  on 
sour:  Du  Roi,  Early  Oblong,  Homosassa,  Madam  Vinous,  Mag- 
num Bonum,  Nonpareil,  Pineapple  and  Tangerine.  There  are 
quite  a  number  of  these  kinds  that  would  put  a  man  to  guessing 
as  to  which  stock  they  were  budded  on  unless  he  ex- 
amined the  roots.  And  speaking  about  the  roots,  here 
is  an  illustration  showing  how  facts  may  and  often 
do,  confound  theories:  The  C.  trifoliata,  although  naturally  a 
much  more  dwarf  tree  than  are  most  of  the  varieties  that  are 
budded  on  it,  will  invariably  keep  ahead  of  the  bud  inserted  on 
it.  In  other  words,  if  the  diameter  of  the  bud  is,  say  three  inches 
just  above  the  point  of  union,  the  C.  trifoliata  stock  just  below 
the  point  of  union  will  be  about  3  1-2  inches.  The  stock  of  C. 
trifoliata  always  develops  growth  faster  than  the  bud  inserted 
on  it,  although  the  natural  inference  would  be  that,  as  the  stock 
itself  is  of  a  dwarfish  nature,  the  bud  would  outgrow  the  stock. 

*  *  * 

Comparative  results  so  far  are  distinctly  in  favor  of  C. 
trifoliata  as  a  stock  for  this  section.  I  know  of  no  reason  why 
this  should  not  apply  equally  to  other  sections  subject  to  fre- 
quent freezes.  In  the  Islands,  or  at  points  outside  the  range 
of  Jack  Frost's  visitations,  the  reason  for  using  C.  trifoliata  as 


216  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

a  stock  might  not  be  so  pronounced.  Its  precocity  in  throwing 
the  bud  into  early  fruiting,  makes  it  desirable  however, 
wherever  immediate  results  are  wished  for.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
this  article  is  not  written  as  a  plea  for  the  Citrus  trifoliata, 
but  simply  to  record  comparative  results  based  upon  what  is 
perhaps  the  most  extensive  and  comprehensive  line  of  experi- 
ments with  it  that  have  ever  been  systematically  undertaken 
in  this  country.  G.  L.  TABER. 

Glen    St.    Mary,    Florida,    July    26,  1902. 

SWEET     ORANGE     (C.    AURANTIUM). 

The  sweet  orange  is  not  so  harcty  as  the  sour  and  tri- 
foliate oranges.  For  colder  regions,  other  things  being 
equal,  one  of  the  latter  two  is  to  be  preferred.  It  has 
been  pointed  out  that  in  California  sweet  stock  is  not 
deep  rooted,  most  of  the  roots  being  found  in  the  top 
eighteen  inches  of  soil.  J.  W.  Mills,  on  page  11  and  12 
Bulletin  138,  California  Experiment  Station,  states  the 
results  of  his  investigation  in  these  words:  "In  short, 
the  general  experience  on  all  kinds  of  soils  and  under 
different  methods  of  cultivation  shows  that  it  is  the  na- 
ture of  the  sweet  orange  seedling  to  form  a  shallow  root 
system,"  and  further:  "To  sum  this  up,  the  sweet  orange 
is  a  surface  feeding  stock  which  has  few  or  no  deeply  pen- 
etrating roots."  In  Florida,  investigations  have  not  been 
carried  far  enough  to  prove  wThat  the  conditions  are,  but 
of  nursery  trees  it  may  be  said  that  the  sweet  stock  is 
equal  in  root  development  to  sour  stock. 

Sweet  stock  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  mal-di-goma 
and  hence  should  not  be  used  on  soils  where  this  disease 
is  likely  to  occur.  Damp  soils,  such  as  are  found  in  the 
hammocks  and  flat  woods  of  Florida  should  not  be  planted 
with  trees  on  sweet  stock ;  even  on  higher  ground  they  are 
frequently  attacked.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  pointed 


STOCKS  FOR  CITRUS  TREES.  217 

out  that  on  light,  well-drained  soils,  trees  worked  on  this 
stock  make  a  good  growth  and  develop  into  shapely,  sym- 
metrical trees.  The  growth  of  trees  on  sweet  stock  is 
more  rapid  than  on  sour  or  trifoliate  orange  and  in  gen- 
eral it  m^y  be  said  that  in  rapidity  of  development,  it  is 
surpassed  as  a  stock  only  by  the  rough  lemon  and  pomelo. 
When  frozen  back,  sweet  stocks  sprout  readily  and 
seldom  is  it  necessary  to  replace  them.  In  some  sections 
it  may  be  advisable  to  use  sweet  stock,  but  the  planter 
should  never  forget  that  it  is  susceptible  to  the  attacks 
of  mal-di-goma,  and  should  not  use  it  without  counting 
the  risk.  In  Florida  its  use  as  a  stock  has  been  discontin- 
ued almost  entirely,  but  in  California,  Australia  and 
other  districts,  it  is  still  used. 

POMELO     (C.    DECUMANA). 

As  already  pointed  out,  the  pomelo  surpasses  the 
rough  lemon  in  hardiness,  but  does  not  equal  the  sweet 
orange.  It  is  a  strong,  vigorous  grower,  and  seedling  pom- 
elo trees  throughout  Florida  have  attained  a  size  sur- 
passed by  no  other  species  of  citrus,  and  generally  sur- 
passing all  others  in  the  amount  of  fruit  borne. 

Within  the  past  few  years,  attention  has  been  di- 
rected towards  its  use  as  a  stock,  most  of  the  citrus  trees 
on  this  stock  being  planted  on  the  lower  west  coast  reg- 
ion of  Florida.  But  outside  of  this  region  it  has  not  been 
used  to  any  considerable  extent  and  most  of  the  plantings 
in  South  Florida  are  still  made  on  sour  orange  and  rough 
lemon  stock.  In  southern  California  this  stock  appears 
to  be  replacing  the  sweet  orange  stock  to  a  very  consider- 
able extent  and  it  appears  to  be  superior  to  the  latter. 
As  a  stock  for  dry  soils,  it  is  surpassed  by  none,  except- 
ing the  rough  lemon,  and  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the  behav- 


218  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

ior  of  seedling  trees,  it  is  successful  on  soils  of  intermed- 
iate moisture  content. 

The  pomelo  root  system  is  well  developed  and  well 
distributed  in  the  soil  and,  so  far  as  observed  in  Florida, 
no  cases  of  mal-di-goma  have  been  noted  and  none  have 
been  authentically  reported.  In  regard  to  its  behavior 
in  California,  J.  W.  Mills,  in  Bulletin  138,  California 
Experiment  Station,  says,  "It  is  resistant,  to  a  certain 
extent,  to  the  form  of  gum  disease  that  attacks  the  roots 
of  citrus  trees." 

LIME     (CITRUS    LIMETTA). 

In  the  southern  east  coast  of  Florida  this  stock  has 
been  tried  to  some  extent  and  the  results  on  rocky  soils, 
or  those  underlaid  with  rock,  appear  to  be  quite  satisfac- 
tory. Trees  on  this  root  upwards  of  twenty  years  old 
may  be  seen  at  Palm  Beach,  Florida,  and  they  are  cer- 
tainly growing  there  under  conditions  where  it  is  ex- 
tremely doubtful  whether  any  other  stock  now  in  use 
would  have  succeeded.  It  may  reasonably  be  expected 
that  this  stock  wrill  be  used  to  a  greater  extent  than  it 
now  is.  It  is  probably  better  adapted  to  tropical  regions 
than  the  trifoliate  orange  and  may  be  instrumental  in 
extending  the  citrus  industry  into  those  regions.  Lime 
trees  succeed  well  on  dry  soils  and  make  a  good  growth. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 
CITRUS  SOILS. 

While  citrus  trees  possess  a  wide  range  of  soil  adap 
lability,  it  is  true  that  any  and  every  kind  of  soil  cannot 
be  used  for  their  culture.  Many  soils  can  be  planted  to 
citrus  trees  where  certain  seedlings  would  not  succeed, 
if  the  right  stock  be  chosen  on  which  to  work  them,  and, 
fortunately,  there  is  a  goodly  number  of  stocks  with  a 
fairly  wide  range  of  adaptability  from  which  to  choose. 

But  even  with  this  advantage  there  are  certain  classes 
of  soils  which  should  be  avoided  and,  of  course,  of  those 
which  may  be  used,  many  are  more  suitable  than  others. 
Sticky,  heavy  soils,  through  which  water  does  not  readily 
percolate  should  be  avoided  and  those  which  are  extremely 
dry,  unless  they  can  be  irrigated,  are  unsuitable.  Again, 
soils  which  are  damp  and  wet  and  those  which  are  under- 
laid with  hardpan  should  not  be  chosen  for  the  citrus 
grove,  unless  the  strata  of  rock  or  hard  soil  can  be  broken 
up  so  as  to  allow  the  roots  to  penetrate  deeply  into  the 
soil. 

Citrus  trees  succeed  best  on  well  drained  soils  of  a 
rather  open  nature.  If  naturally  well  drained,  so  much 
the  better,  but  if  not,  drainage  must  be  provided.  No 
stagnant  water  should  stand  in  the  grove,  neither  should 
the  soil  be  completely  charged  with  water.  Soils  of  an  ex- 
tremely open,  porous  nature  are  unsuitable,  as  they  do  not 
hold  sufficient  moisture  and  if  they  are  deficient  in  plant 
food  and  recourse  has  to  be  made  to  commercial  fertili- 
zers to  make  up  the  lack  of  fertility,  these  leach  readily 
from  the  soil,  and  the  full  effects  from  their  use  cannot 
be  obtained.  If  the  surface  is  good,  tillable  earth,  with  a 


220  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

fair  admixture  of  sand,  so  as  to  open  it  up,  and  the  sub- 
soil is  somewhat  closer  so  as  to  hold  moisture  and  pre- 
vent leaching,  the  ideal  conditions  have  been  secured. 

FLORIDA    SOILS. 

The  soils  of  Florida  are  commonly  grouped  according 
to  elevation  and  the  growth  which  they  support  or  have 
supported  in  a  virgin  state.  Those  commonly  used  for 
citrus  culture  are  high  pine  land,  flat  woods,  high  ham- 
mock and  low  hammock.  On  all  of  these  citrus  fruits 
have  been  and  are  grown  successfully. 

High  pine  land,  as  the  term  denotes,  is  well  elevated 
and  well  drained.  In  a  native  state  it  is  covered  with  a 
growth  of  long-leaf  pine  (Pinus  australis  Michx.),  with 
little  or  no  undergrowth.  Sometimes  a  few  high  ground 
willow  oaks  (Quercus  Cinerea  Michx.),  and  other  trees 
are  found.  Those  with  a  mixture  of  deciduous  trees  are 
usually  conceded  to  be  somewhat  superior  to  those  cov- 
ered with  a  pure  growth  of  pine.  The  surface  soil  gener- 
ally contains  a  fair  amount  of  humus,  the  sub-soil  is 
clay  or  a  rather  loamy  sand,  though  frequently  the  clay 
is  not  found  until  a  considerable  depth  is  reached.  These 
soils  are  not  rich,  but  they  respond  readily  to  good  treat- 
ment and  make  good  citrus  soils.  They  contain  about 
.026  per  cent  nitrogen,  .016  per  cent  potash,  .022  per  cent 
lime  and  .05  per  cent  phosphoric  acid. 

The  flat  woods  land  likewise  supports  a  growth  of 
long-leaf  pine  (Pinus  australis),  but  the  elevation  is  con- 
siderably less  and  the  ground  is  quite  flat  and  level.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  State,  in  the  vicinity  of  Miami 
and  Punta  Gorda,  for  instance,  and  generally  south  of 
a  line  from  Cape  Canaveral  to  Tampa  Bay,  the  long-leaf 
pine  is  replaced  by  the  Cuban  pine  (Pinus  Cubensis  Gris- 


CITRUS  SOILS.  221 

eb. ) .  Frequently  flat  woods  land  is  thickly  covered  with  an 
undergrowth  of  saw  palmetto  (Serenoa  serrulata  Hook.), 
and  gallberry  (Ilex  glabra).  In  many  places  the  flat 
woods  land  approaches  the  high  pine  land  in  elevation. 
Such  lands  are  usually  well  adapted  to  citrus  culture. 
On  the  other  hand,  much  of  the  land  designated  as  flat 
woods  is  low,  flat  and  undrainable  and  is  entirely  un- 
suited  to  the  growth  of  citrus  trees.  The  surface  soil  con- 
tains a  considerable  amount  of  humus,  while  the  sub-soil 
may  be  clay,  hardpan  or  rock.  Those  which  are  subject 
to  overflow,  not  readily  drained  and  which  have  a  hard, 
compact  sub-soil,  should  be  avoided.  On  the  other  hand, 
those  of  intermediate  character,  as  noted  above,  are  among 
the  best  of  Florida's  citrus  soils. 

High  hammock  lands  correspond  in  a  large  measure 
to  the  high  pine  lands.  They  are  well  drained  and  ele- 
vated, but  are  covered  with  a  native  growth  of  hardwood, 
evergreen  and  deciduous  trees.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned holly  (Ilex  opaca  Ait.),  hickory  (Carya  tomen- 
tosa  Nutt.),  live  oak  (Quercus  virens  Ait.),  dogwood 
(Gornus  Florida)  and  magnolia  (Magnolia  grandiflora). 
Lands  of  this  character  are  well  supplied  with  humus, 
have  a  comparatively  deep,  rich  soil  and  are  well  adapted 
for  citrus  culture.  The  analyses  of  these  soils  show  about 
.0658  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  .06  per  cent  of  lime,  .014  per 
cent  phosphoric  acid  and  a  trace  of  potash. 

The  high  hammock  lands  shade  off  into  the  low  ham- 
mocks. These  latter  are  covered  with  a  growth  of  nearly 
the  same  character,  but  the  live  oak  is  more  in  evidence 
and  the  cabbage  palmetto  (Sabal  palmetto  R.  &  S.)  is  quite 
abundant.  The  surface  soil  contains  a  large  amount  of 
humus  and  they  are  consequently  rich  in  nitrogen.  They 
are  generally  difficult  and  costly  to  clear,  but  if  well 


0^2  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

drained,  or  the  evil  effects  of  a  superabundance  of  water 
can  be  avoided,  they  are  very  desirable  for  citrus  fruits. 
It  is  on  these  soils  that  large  numbers  of  citrus  trees  have 
been  set  and  good  groves  established  along  the  Caloosa- 
hatchee  Kiver  as  well  as  elsewhere  in  Florida. 

In  addition  to  these  soils,  mention  should  be  made 
of  the  hickory  or  the  hickory  scrub  lands,  stretching  in 
broken  areas  along  the  shores  of  the  Indian  River,  from 
about  Cape  Canaveral  northward.  They  are  covered  for 
the  most  part  with  a  growth  of  hickory  and  the  soil  is  a 
pure  yellow  sand  with  a  goodly  admixture  of  humus  in 
the  surface  layer.  In  some  respects  they  correspond  to 
1he  high  pine  lands  of  the  interior  and  appear  to  be  well 
adapted  to  citrus  fruits.  The  chemical  analyses  show 
the  following  percentage  of  the  important  plant  foods: 
.07  per  cent  nitrogen,  .0862  per  cent  lime,  .0431  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid  and  .011  per  cent  potash. 

Other  soils  are  used  for  citrus  culture  in  the  State, 
but  those  described  above  have  generally  proved  most 
satisfactory. 

LOUISIANA. 

In  Louisiana,  the  rich,  alluvial  soils  of  the  Missis- 
sippi delta  are  used  for  citrus  trees.  These  correspond 
in  some  degree  to  the  low  hammock  soils  of  Florida,  but 
are  much  richer  and  contain  more  humus.  Particular 
attention  has  to  be  given  to  drainage. 

CALIFORNIA. 

The  best  citrus  soils  in  California  are  found  on  the 
higher  levels  and  among  the  foothills.  In  most  parts  of 
the  State  the  actual  composition  of  the  soil,  whether  it 
be  red  soil,  granite  or  sandy  loam,  does  not  matter  so 


CITRUS  SOILS.  223 

much  as  does  the  drainage  and  the  possibility  of  supply- 
ing water  by  irrigation. 

The  soil  of  the  famous  Riverside  district  is  of  a  deep 
reddish  color,  while  the  Redlands  section  takes  its  name 
from  the  color  of  the  soil.  The  mesas  are  among  the  best 
citrus  soils  of  the  State,  for  though  the  fruit  may  be  pro- 
duced on  other  soils,  it  is  not  equal  in  quality  to  that  pro- 
duced on  this  class  of  land  and  on  the  foothills.  In  south- 
ern California,  the  great  lemon  industry  has  been  built 
up  on  the  mesas  and  foothills,  lands  long  untouched, 
many  of  them  covered  with  a  forbidding  growth  of  cacti, 
sagebrush  and  like  vegetation  peculiar  to  such  soil  and 
climatic  conditions. 

In  California  soils  underlaid  with  hardpan,  alkaline 
soils,  heavy  clay  soils  (adobe),  should  be  avoided  and 
the  lower  lands,  containing  larger  amounts  of  humus  and 
moisture  do  not  produce  fruit  of  as  good  quality  as  the 
uplands. 

CUBA. 

In  Cuba  there  are  a  number  of  different  types  of 
soil  which  may  be  used  for  citrus  groves.  Not  all  of  them 
are  equally  adapted,  and  it  will  require  considerable  prac- 
tical experience  to  determine  which  class  or  classes  will 
be  most  satisfactory.  Not  until  bearing  groves  have 
been  grown  to  considerable  age  can  the  question  be  defi- 
nitely answered.  The  health  and  longevity  of  the  trees, 
the  flavor  and  quality  of  the  fruit  are  all  influenced  by 
the  character  of  the  soil. 

The  soils  which  are  more  or  less  adapted  to  citrus 
fruits  may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes.  Of  these 
the  sandy  soils  are  preferred  by  many.  Soils  of  this  type 
are  easily  cultivated,  and  while  some  commercial  fertilizer 


224  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

will  have  to  be  used,  other  advantages  may  more  than 
offset  this  expense.  They  retain  moisture  well  and,  like 
the  sandy  soils  of  Florida,  will  doubtless  produce  thin- 
skinned,  juicy  fruit  of  excellent  quality. 

On  the  red  lands  found  in  large  tracts  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Havana  and  Matanzas,  and  in  smaller  areas  else- 
where, many  old  bearing  orange  trees  are  to  be  found. 
The  old  groves  planted  on  them  have  been  quite  successful. 
The  chief  drawbacks  in  their  management  are  that  they 
part  readily  with  their  moisture,  bake  and  crack  open 
during  dry  weather.  They  are  sticky  and  pasty  during 
wet  weather  and,  in  consequence,  are  rather  hard  to  culti- 
vate. By  incorporating  vegetable  matter,  and  perhaps  by 
the  use  of  lime,  these  conditions  can  doubtless  be  con- 
siderably improved. 

The  black  lands  are  likely  to  produce  rank  growth 
in  tree  and  fruit,  though  by  care  in  fertilizing,  when  the 
trees  begin  to  bear,  a  portion  of  this  difficulty  may  be 
overcome.  In  selecting  the  location,  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  question  of  drainage,  as  these  soils,  particu- 
larly when  low  and  flat,  are  likely  to  be  wet. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 
LOCATING  THE  CITRUS  GROVE. 

In  selecting  a  location  for  planting  a  grove  of  citrus 
trees  a  number  of  points  have  to  be  carefully  considered. 
The  facilities  for  transportation,  the  susceptibility  of  the 
region  to  frosts,  the  nature  and  direction  of  the  prevailing 
winds,  the  exposure  and  the  insect  problem  must  all  be 
studied  in  their  relation  to  the  prospective  gains,  the  wel- 
fare of  the  trees  and  the  quality  of  the  output. 

Citrus  fruits  have  a  great  advantage  over  many  other 
kinds  of  fruit.  They  are  not  perishable  in  the  same  sense 
that  plums  and  peaches  are,  and  after  being  removed  from 
the  trees  they  may  be  kept  for  weeks,  even  with  ordinary 
care.  Their  ability  to  withstand  the  inroads  of  decay 
producing  organisms  is  not  dependent  upon  the  resist- 
ant power  of  the  inner  portion  of  the  fruit,  but  upon  the 
leathery  nature  of  the  cured  rind.  Their  keeping  quality 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  transportation  problem. 
With  proper  care  they  may  be  shipped  to  any  of  the 
world's  great  markets. 

The  susceptibility  of  citrus  trees  to  injury  from  frost 
decrees  that  they  must  be  grown  in  regions  far  from  the 
effects  of  rigorous  cold  and  such  sections  are  far  distant 
from  the  great  markets  of  the  United  States  in  the  North- 
east and  Middle  West.  Consequently,  it  is  impossible 
to  produce  the  fruit  in  proximity  to  the  markets  and  this 
phase  of  the  question  may  be  dismissed. 

But  in  regions  where  the  fruit  is  grown  it  is  best,  other 
things  being  equal,  to  locate  the  grove  in  proximity  to  a 
railroad  station  or  steamboat  landing.  Transportation 
by  team  is  expensive  and  a  distance  of  five,  ten  or  fifteen 


oo(]  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

miles  from  a  railroad  must  not  be  overlooked  in  the  pre- 
liminary reckoning  of  expenditures  and  returns.  If  the 
grove  can  be  located  conveniently  near  two  railroads,  so 
much  the  better.  Competition  sometimes  has  an  influence 
on  freight  tariff. 

It  may  be  safely  said  that  few  districts  where  citrus 
fruits  are  grown  within  the  confines  of  the  mainland  of 
the  United  States  are  entirely  free  from  the  effects  of 
frost,  still  some  localities  are  notoriously  frosty  while 
others  may 'be  considered  entirely  free,  so  far  as  damage 
to  the  trees,  flowers  or  fruit  is  concerned.  Freedom  from, 
or  susceptibility  to  frosts  is  not  dependent  entirely  upon 
either  latitude  or  altitude.  A  certain  situation  may  not 
be  subject  to  the  baneful  effects  of  frost,  while,  within  a 
very  short  distance,  another  may  be  repeatedly  visited. 
Even  in  Florida  where  the  land  is  comparatively  flat  and 
level  and  where  one  might  expect  greater  uniformity  to 
prevail,  isolated  spots  are  visited  by  frosts,  while  others 
much  farther  north  escape.  The  topography  of  the  region, 
the  proximity  of  bodies  of  water,  the  presence  of  mountain 
barriers,  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  are  the 
factors  which  largely  control  the  climate  of  a  given 
region. 

It  is  frequently  noted  that  frosts  occur  in  valleys, 
hollows  and  low  areas  while  the  adjacent  hillsides  or  ele- 
vated portions  are  untouched.  The  explanation  of  this 
phenomenon  is  that  the  cold  air  drains  off  into  the  lower 
levels  and  settles  there,  while  the  warm  air  rises  to  re- 
place it.  This  interchange  of  air  goes  on  until  frost  oc- 
curs in  the  lower  area  while  the  higher  portion  escapes. 
Low  ground  so  situated  as  to  receive  the  cold  air  from  a 
higher  level  should  be  avoided,  a  location  on  the  side  of 
the  slope  or  on  the  top  of  the  elevation  being  much  prefer- 


LOCATING  THE  CITRUS  GROVE.  227 

able.  Even  a  few  feet  of  rise  suffices  to  protect  the  trees. 
Frequently  it  may  be  observed  that  the  lower  portion  of 
a  grove  is  badly  frosted  while  the  remainder,  only  a  few 
feet  higher,  escapes.  Sometimes  the  banking  of  the  cold 
air  is  materially  increased  by  a  wall  of  timber  so  situ- 
ated, adjoining  the  lower  portion,  as  to  prevent  air 
drainage. 

This  trouble  may  be  obviated  by  opening  up  the  tim- 
ber belt  sufficiently  to  allow  the  cold  air  to  drain  off. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  that  if  the  grove  or 
a  portion  of  it  be  situated  in  a  depression,  air  drainage 
may  be  actually  injurious,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  fact 
that  the  cold  air  flows  off  into  the  lower  areas  may  be 
turned  to  good  advantage,  if  precaution  is  taken  to  select 
a  proper  location.  The  site  for  the  grove  in  regions  sub- 
ject to  damage  by  frost  should  be  selected  on  sloping  or 
elevated  ground,  to  permit  the  removal  of  the  cold  air. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  locate  the  grove  on  the  shore 
of  a  lake  or  other  body  of  water.  The  proximity  of  such 
bodies  of  water  have  much  to  do  with  equalizing  the  tem- 
perature. In  Florida,  as  shown  in  Chapter  XXXV,  there 
are  large  numbers  of  lakes  and  rivers  and  in  that  district  it 
is  best  to  locate  the  grove,  if  possible,  either  on  the  east  or 
south  side  of  a  lake.  The  freezes  which  have  struck  the 
State  have  generally  come  either  from  the  north  or  north- 
west. If  the  lake  be  of  considerable  depth,  the  water  does 
not  part  with  its  store  of  accumulated  heat  so  rapidly  as 
when  it  is  shallow  and  the  heat  slowly  given  up  will  in 
some  measure  raise  the  temperature.  In  prevention  of 
frosts,  bodies  of  water  play  an  important  part.  The  heat 
which  they  have  accumulated  during  the  day  is  given  off 
slowly  during  the  night  thus  raising  the  temperature  of 
the  air  over  the  adjoining  land. 


228  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Frosts  and  freezes  must  not  be  confounded.  Frosts 
generally  occur  in  restricted  areas  on  clear,  still  nights. 
Freezes  on  the  contrary  usually  follow  or  accompany 
storms  of  wind  and  rain.  Their  effects  are  not  local,  but 
they  sweep  across  great  stretches  of  territory. 

Solid  timber  areas  frequently  do  much  toward  stay- 
ing their  progress  and  preventing  damage.  But  these 
should  be  opened  up  sufficiently  to  allow  some  movement 
of  air,  or  a  still  air  space  may  be  created  into  which  the 
cold  air  will  settle.  Moore,  in  his  Hand-book  of  Orange 
Culture,  recommends  clearing  the  land  and  the  laying  out 
of  the  grove  in  blocks,  each  block  separated,  from  the  ad- 
joining ones  by  a  belt  of  the  native  timber.  The  twenty 
acre  grove  of  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart,  of  Hawk's  Park,  Fla.,  is 
laid  out  in  blocks  of  five  acres,  separated  by  belts  of  na- 
tive hammock  growth,  fifty  feet  wide.  Ditches  are  run 
along  these  belts  to  prevent  the  roots  of  the  native  trees 
from  reaching  out  into  the  grove.  Mr.  Hart  has,  on  a 
number  of  occasions,  demonstrated  the  great  advantage 
of  this  system  of  planting.  So  favorably  impressed  have 
we  been  that  we  can  unhesitatingly  recommend  it  to 
anyone  about  to  locate  where  frost  protection  is  neces- 
sary. When  open  fires  have  to  be  resorted  to,  the  heat 
is  confined  and  becomes  much  more  effective.  Cutting 
off  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun  is  a  point  of  further 
importance.  If  trees  have  been  touched  by  cold,  their 
power  to  recuperate  is  greatly  increased  by  the  shade 
provided  in  such  a  location. 

WIND-BREAKS. 

The  foliage  and  fruit  of  citrus  trees  may  be  greatly 
injured  by  high  winds.  In  coast  regions  such  winds  fre- 
quently blow  almost  steadily  and  great  damage  is  some 


LOCATING  THE  CITRUS  GROVE.  229 

times  wrought.  In  fact,  it  is  well  nigh  impossible  to  es- 
tablish and  maintain  a  grove  under  these  conditions  unless 
shelter  of  some  kind  be  provided.  If  the  native  growth 
is  sufficient  to  afford  protection,  a  belt  should  be  left,  if 
not,  a  wind-break  should  be  planted  or  an  artificial  one 
constructed.  Along  the  shores  of  the  Indian  River  in  the 
famous  Indian  Kiver  district  in  Florida,  wind-breaks  have 
to  be  provided  to  break  the  force  of  the  whipping  wind. 
The  shores  of  the  river  are  usually  fringed  with  a  dense 
growth  of  cabbage  palmetto  and  other  trees.  This  growth 
has  generally  been  left  by  planters,  fig.  A.,  plate  XVI,  but 
occasionally  it  has  been  necessary  to  build  a  wind-break. 
Fig.  B.,  plate  XVI,  is  an  illustration  of  one  of  these.  It  is 
built  of  slats,  sixteen  feet  long,  three  inches  apart  and 
nailed  to  three,  two-by-four  stringers  supported  by  five- 
inch  posts  placed  ten  feet  apart.  To  give  additional  sup- 
port, the  whole  structure  is  guyed  with  No.  8  wire  every 
twenty  feet  on  opposite  sides. 

A  slat  wind-break  may  be  advisable  if  land  be  very 
expensive,  or  if  it  is  felt  that  shelter  must  be  provided 
without  delay.  Generally,  however,  it  is  best  to  provide 
a  more  substantial  one  of  trees.  In  California  the  Mon- 
terey cypress,  pepper  trees  and  gums  are  most  desirable 
for  wind-breaks.  The  cypress  is  generally  planted  alone, 
while  the  pepper  trees  and  gums  are  frequently  mixed. 
The  pepper  trees  are  spreading  while  the  gums  are  tall 
and  upright,  consequently  the  combination  is  a  good  one. 
The  best  trees  for  wind-breaks  in  Florida  are  the  upland 
willow  oak,  willow  leaved  oak  and  other  native  trees.  They 
are  usually  exempt  from  frost  injuries.  The  Australian 
pine  (Casuarina  equisetifolia)  and  camphor  tree  are  quite 
good.  The  camphor  tree  is  considerably  hardier  than 
most  species  of  citrus,  yet  not  sufficiently  so  to  render  it 


Plate  XVI. 


Fig  A. 


A  wind-break  of  native  growth,  mostly  palmettos,  on 
the  shore  of  the  Indian   River,   Florida. 


Fig     B.      An   artificial   wind-break   of   slats. 


LOCATING  THE  CITRUS  GROVE.  231 

a  very  desirable  tree  to  use  in  the  more  exposed  sections. 
It  does  not  do  well  on  high,  dry  soils.  The  Australian 
pine  is  also  subject  to  frost  injury  and  should  be  planted 
only  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State.  Where  frosts 
do  not  prevail,  the  Mexican  lime  planted  as  a  hedge  and 
allowed  to  attain  a  height  of  ten  to  twelve  feet  is  quite 
desirable. 

Preferably  the  wind-break  should  be  planted  at  the 
same  time  as  the  grove.  In  any  case,  it  will  be  found 
necessary  to  ditch  the  ground  between  the  line  of  wind- 
break and  the  first  tree  row,  to  prevent  the  roots  of  the 
wind-break  from  spreading  out  into  the  grove  and  depriv- 
ing the  citrus  trees  of  food  and  moisture.  This  ditch  may 
be  filled  up  again  after  cutting  the  roots,  if  so  desired, 
but  will  need  to  be  opened  up  and  the  roots  cut  back 
again  every  third  or  fourth  year.  It  need  not  be  wide, 
a  foot  or  fifteen  inches  is  sufficient,  with  sufficient  depth 
to  cut  off  the  surface  feeding  roots. 

Generally  speaking,  an  exposure  opening  to  the  south 
is  best  for  citrus  trees,  but  in  frosty  districts  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  plant  on  the  south  or  east  side  of  a  lake  or  other 
body  of  water  as  already  stated,  in  which  case  the  grove 
should  be  set  on  ground  sloping  toward  the  lake. 

In  irrigation  districts  a  piece  of  ground  should  not 
be  selected  which  cannot  be  irrigated,  and  the  prospective 
planter  should  assure  himself  that  the  available  supply 
will  always  be  ample  for  his  needs.  Many  failures  have 
resulted  because  this  rule  was  not  observed.  As  one 
writer  has  expressed  it,  "find  water,  then  find  a  piece  of 
ground  to  put  it  on." 

The  insect  problem  is  one  to  which  some  considera- 
tion may  be  given.  The  insects  affecting  citrus  fruits  are 
pretty  well  distributed  and  it  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to 


232  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

say  that  conditions  are  nearly  equalized  throughout  the 
country.  Regions  which  are  free  from  one  pest  generally 
have  another  equally  troublesome.  No  one  section  can 
expect  to  long  remain  free  from  their  inroads.  Still  some 
climatic  conditions  appear  to  be  more  favorable  for  the 
development  of  some  insects  than  others.  The  black  scale 
of  citrus  trees  is  a  great  pest  in  the  coast  regions  of  Cali- 
fornia, while  farther  inland  it  is  not  so  troublesome. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 
PREPARATIONS  FOR  PLANTING. 

CLEARING    THE    LAND. 

If  the  piece  of  land  selected  for  the  grove  is  covered 
with  timber,  one  of  two  plans  may  be  adopted — partial 
clearing  or  complete  clearing.  In  all  cases  the  latter  is 
preferable,  but  the  former  can  be  made  to  give  good  re- 
sults. 

If  it  has  been  decided  to  plant  the  trees  in  a  partial 
clearing,  the  rows  in  which  the  trees  are  to  stand  should 
be  cleared  out,  or  the  ground  should  be  staked  off  and 
a  space  in  the  form  of  a  circle  cleared  where  each  tree  is 
to  stand.  This  row  or  space,  as  the  case  may  be,  should 
be  carefully  cleared.  No  roots  of  the  adjoining  standing 
timber  should  be  left  in  it,  but  it  should  be  free  from  all 
roots  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches. 
The  timber  which  stood  on  the  ground  may  be  burned  and 
the  ashes  returned  to  the  soil,  or  the  larger  wood  may  be 
saved  for  firing  in  some  cases,  or  the  wood  may  be  piled 
and  allowed  to  rot  on  the  ground,  while  the  brush  in 
small  quantities  may  be  used  as  a  mulch.  All  the  re- 
mainder of  the  standing  timber  should  be  cut  out  not  later 
than  the  next  winter  and  every  precaution  must  be  taken 
to  guard  against  the  newly  planted  trees  being  deprived 
of  food  and  moisture  by  the  native  growth. 

In  clearing  standing  timber,  wind-breaks  should  al- 
ways be  allowed  to  remain.  A  fifty-foot  belt  will  usually 


234  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

suffice,  and  the  plan  advised  by  Moore,  of  planting  in 
small  blocks  with  shelter  belts  intervening,  is  by  all 
means  advisable.  In  exposed  regions  this  plan  should 
always  be  adopted. 

Having  decided  to  make  a  complete  clearing,  it  is 
best  to  commence  operations  one  year  previous  to  plant- 
ing. The  standing  timber  and  all  growth  should  be  cut 
down.  Then  the  stumps  should  be  removed.  The  use  of 
a  good  stump-puller  is  always  advisable  and  dynamite 
is  often  a  necessity.  Clear  thoroughly  and  either  dis- 
pose of  the  wood  and  brush  and  plant  a  cover  crop  in 
summer  or  allow  the  brush,  roots  and  trunks  to  shelter 
the  ground  during  the  summer.  If  the  latter  course  is 
adopted,  the  brush  should  not  be  piled  and  should  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  spread  out  over  the  surface. 

Preferably  the  ground  selected  for  the  citrus  grove 
should  be  cleared  the  winter  before  the  one  during  which 
the  trees  are  to  be  planted.  After  having  removed  the 
standing  stumps  and  rubbish,  the  ground  should  be 
plowed,  harrowed  and  leveled.  During  the  intervening 
summer  season,  a  cover  crop  should  be  planted.  The  roots 
of  this  crop  will  open  up  the  soil,  nitrogen  will  be  added 
(if  a  legume  is  planted),  humus  will  be  added  and  on 
the  whole  no  better  preparation  can  be  given  the  soil  for 
the  future  grove  than  by  adopting  this  plan.  If  possible 
to  do  so,  it  should  always  be  followed,  and  if  a  piece  of 
old  ground  is  to  be  planted  in  trees  it  is  the  best  method 
of  insuring  satisfactory  results.  In  the  latter  ca^e,  more 
than  one  season  may  be  required  to  get  the  ground  in 
shape.  As  a  cover  crop,  beggarweed,  velvet  beans  or  cow- 
peas  may  be  planted,  and  the  remarks  on  these  crops  in 
Chapter  XXXIII  apply  equally  well  here.  Cowpeas  gen 


PREPARATIONS  FOR  PLANTING.  235 

erally  give  excellent  results  on  new  ground.  Mr.  W.  S. 
Hart,  of  Hawks'  Park,  Fla.,  a  successful  grower  of 
more  than  twenty-five  years'  experience,  makes  the  follow- 
ing statement  regarding  this  method  of  preparation :  "The 
quickest  profits  that  I  ever  realized  from  an  orange  grove 
was  where  I  thoroughly  worked  the  soil  and  planted  it 
in  cowpeas  the  first  year  after  clearing,  and  before  I  set 
the  trees." 

Cultivation.  Before  planting  the  trees  the  ground 
should  be  put  in  thorough  tilth.  It  should  be  loosened 
up  and  stirred.  It  is  not  advisable  to  turn  the  top  soil 
under  unless  the  sub-soil  brought  to  the  surface  is  quite 
rich.  But  the  soil  should  be  stirred  to  a  good  depth  in 
all  cases.  If  the  lower  soil  is  firm  and  compact,  a  sub- 
soil plow  should  be  used  to  loosen  the  soil  sufficiently  to 
allow  the  roots  to  penetrate.  After  the  plowing,  the  cul- 
tivator or  harrow  should  be  used.  This  followed  by  the 
float  or  planker  will  leave  the  ground  smooth  and  mellow, 
in  excellent  condition,  both  for  staking  off  and  for  plant- 
ing. 

Dead  furrows  should  be  avoided  unless  it  is  desired 
to  use  them  as  open  ditches  afterward.  To  do  this  the 
plowing  should  be  done  from  a  line  down  the  center  of 
the  field,  two  furrows  being  first  thrown  together,  then 
others  added  on  either  side  until  the  work  is  completed. 

GROVE    PLANS. 

A  number  of  different  systems  may  be  used  in  the 
planting  of  citrus  groves.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  triangular,  square  or  rectangular,  hexagonal  or  sep- 
tuple, quincunx  and  double  or  mixed  plantings. 


236 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Triangular  System. 
The  triangular  system 
is  sometimes  referred 
to  as  the  hexagonal  sys- 
tem, but  the  latter  sys- 
tem is  one  of  equilateral 
triangles,  while  the  term 
triangular,  as  here  used, 
is  applied  to  the  method 
of  planting  in  inequi- 
lateral triangles.  For  in- 
stance, in  fig.  55,  the 
trees  are  set  in  rows 
thirty  feet  apart  in  the 
rows  running  east  and 
west.  But  in  every  other 
row  the  trees  are  set  not 


Fig. 


9.1 


* 


Fig.  56.     Square  system  of  planting. 


55.     Triangular  system  of  planting. 

on  the  corners  of  the 
thirty-foot  squares, 
but  half  way  between  the 
corners,  and  the  distance 
from  tree  to  tree  diag- 
onally across  the  field  is, 
planted  per  acre  than 
thirty  feet.  In  fact,  they 
are  about  thirty-three  and 
a  half  feet  apart.  By  this 
method  fewer  trees  are 
planted  per  acre  than 
by  the  square  system.  In 
laying  out  a  grove  by 
the  triangular  method, 
the  field  is  first  laid  out 
in  squares.  A  line  is 


PREPARATIONS  FOR  PLANTING.  237 

then  run  diagonally  across  the  field  and  a  tree  is  planted 
wherever  this  line  passes  through  the  corners  or  cuts  the 
side  of  a  square. 

There  is  little  to  be  gained  by  this  system  of  plant- 
ing, except  that  it  makes  it  possible  to  cultivate  readily 
three  ways  through  the  grove.  The  trees  are  given  some- 
what more  space.  But  by  planting  trees  according  to 
the  triangular  system  at  thirty  foot  distance,  for  in- 
stance, is  the  same  as  planting  in  rectangles  30x33  1-2 
feet,  so  far  as  the  number  of  trees  is  concerned.  Tri- 
angles laid  out  on  twenty- foot  squares  would  be  the  same 
as  planting  in  rectangles  20x22.4  feet. 

Square  or  Rectangular  System.  In  this  system  is  in- 
eluded  only  the  methods  of  setting  trees  in  rectangles, 
either  square  or  oblong.  It  is  by  far  the  most  commonly 
used  of  all  the  systems  and  the  ease  with  which  a  field  can 
be  laid  off  in  rectangles  is  greatly  in  its  favor. 

The  rows  of  trees  intersect  each  other  at  right  angles 
and  cultivation  may  be  carried  on  conveniently  either 
crosswise  or  lengthwise  of  the  grove.  The  planter  has 
the  choice  of  placing  the  trees  the  same  distance  apart 
both  ways  or  of  planting  them  closer  together  in  the  rows 
than  the  distance  between  the  rows. 

It  has  been  argued  that  space  is  not  equally  divided 
among  the  trees  and  while  this  is  apparently  true,  yet,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  roots  of  citrus  trees,  in  most  cases, 
penetrate  and  permeate  all  the  space  allowed  in  ordinary 
distances.  The  roots  will  certainly  secure  all  the  food 
and  moisture  in  the  top  fifteen  inches  of  soil. 

When  trees  are  to  be  planted  by  this  system,  the 
stakes  must  be  set  so  as  to  be  exactly  in  line,  whether 
viewed  from  the  end  or  from  the  side  of  the  field. 


238 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


<$• 


Fig.    57. 


Hexagonal    system    of 
planting. 


triangles. 

It  is  the  only  system 
whereby  each  tree  is 
placed  equally  distant 
from  each  of  its  adjoin- 
ing neighbors  and  the 
only  system  which  equal- 
ly divides  the  space 
among  the  trees.  By  this 
method  about  15  per  cent 
more  trees  can  be  set  per 
acre  than  by  the  rectang- 
ular. 

For  permanent  plant- 
ings, at  regular  distances 
this  system  and  the  rect- 
angular should  be  rec- 
ommended before  the  others. 


Hexagonal,  Septuple  or 
Equilateral  Triangle  System. 
By  this  system  six  trees  are 
set  equidistant  from  a  seventh 
placed  in  the  center.  The  ba- 
sis of  the  system  is  not  the 
square  but  the  circle,  since  the 
radius  of  the  circle  is  approx- 
imately equal  to  one-sixth  of 
the  circumference  of  the  circle. 
The  name  septuple,  sometimes 
applied  to  this  system,  refers 
to  the  fact  that  the  number  of 
trees  in  each  group-unit  is 
seven.  Equilateral  triangle 
system  refers  to  the  planting 
of  the  trees  in  equilateral 


X        ;       X       :        X.       ':       X 

'/.    :    X   i    X   !  )*• 

V'''  i  V  i   'X''  ;  '> 


Fig.    58.      Quincunx    system   of   planting. 


PREPARATIONS    FOR   PLANTING. 


239 


Quincunx  System.  By  this  system  four  trees  consti- 
tute a  square,  and  a  fifth  is  set  in  the  center  of  each  square. 
Hence  the  number  of  rows  is  greatly  increased  and  about 
78  per  cent  more  trees  can  be  set  per  acre  than  by  the  rect- 
angular system. 

For  permanent  plantings  of  varieties  of  uniform  size, 
it  does  not  possess  any  particular  advantage.  But  if  it  is 
desired  to  set  a  tree  of  some  smaller  variety  in  the  center 
of  each  square  then  the  system  of  quincunx  planting  be- 
comes useful. 

In  double  plantings,  where  the  intention  is  to  remove 
some  of  the  trees,  this  system  can  be  recommended.  If 
for  instance,  peaches  are  set  with  oranges,  a  peach  tree  may 
be  set  in  each  square  of  oranges,  and  after  serving  four 
or  five  years  of  usefulness,  can  be  cut  out. 

APPROXIMATE    NUMBER    OF    TREES    PER    ACRE    FOR 
DIFFERENT    PLANTING    SYSTEMS. 


DISTANCE  APART 

Triangular 

Rectangu- 
lar 

Hexagonal 

Quincunx 

10x10  feet  

396 

436 

501 

831 

12  x  12  feet  

275 

303 

348 

523 

15x10  feet  

164 

290 

15x15  feet  

175 

193 

217 

"347 

20  x  15  feet  

132 

145 

18  x  18  feet.  

122 

134 

142 

247 

20  x  20  feet  

98 

108 

124 

199 

25  x  20  feet  

79 

87 

25  x  25  feet  

64 

70 

"si" 

126 

30x30  feet  

44 

48 

55 

83 

35  x  35  feet  

33 

36 

41 

65 

Hedge  Plantings.  Some  growers  have  occasionally 
resorted  to  this  system  of  planting.  The  trees  are  set 
so  as  to  form  a  dense  line  one  way  while  a  space  of 
twenty  feet  or  so  is  left  between  the  rows.  Large  quan- 
tities of  fruit  are  obtained  from  a  small  area  and  the 


240 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


system,  for  a  few  years  at  least,  works  well.  But  it  can 
scarcely  be  recommended  for  general  adoption.  Event- 
ually the  trees  will  crowd  each  other  and  many  of  the 
branches  may  die. 

Double  Planting.  By  this  system  of  planting  is 
meant  the  setting  of  two  or  more  kinds  of  fruit  trees  or 
plants  in  the  same  area.  In  Florida,  citrus  trees  and 
pineapples,  citrus  trees  and  guavas,  and  citrus  trees  and 
peaches  are  frequently  planted  together.  In  Louisiana 


Fig1,  59.     Double  planting — Citrus  fruits  and  pineapples. 

citrus  trees  and  pecans  are  often  so  planted.  A  double 
planting  of  pomelos  and  pineapples,  a  method  quite  suc- 
cessfully used  by  Mr.  C.  T.  McCarty,  on  hickory  scrub 
land  a  little  north  of  Fort  Pierce,  Fla.,  is  illustrated  in 
figure  59.  The  plan  shows  the  pineapples  occupying  a 
portion  of  the  space  between  the  rows  of  trees.  The 
pomelos  are  set  17  feet  apart  in  rows  which  are  22  feet 
apart.  Six  rows  of  pineapples,  15x20  inches  apart  are 
set  in  each  twenty-two-foot  space. 

This  leaves  a  six-foot  space  on  each  side  of  the  pine- 
apple bed  between  the  edges  and  the  row  of  trees.     The 


PREPARATIONS  FOR  PLANTING.  241 

plan  has  worked  quite  successfully.  After  three  or  four 
years  the  pineapples  will  be  removed  entirely  and  the 
whole  space  given  up  to  the  trees. 

Whenever  this  plan  is  adopted,  one  mistake  must 
be  guarded  against.  The  favorite  pineapple  fertilizers 
used  in  Florida  to-day  contain  organic  sources  of  nitro- 
gen. If  these  be  used  on  a  double  planting  of  pineapples 
and  citrus  trees,  the  latter  will  almost  surely  be  affected 
with  die-back.  A  fertilizer  containing  sulphate  of  am- 
monia and  a  little  nitrate  of  soda  as  sources  of  nitrogen 
is  the  only  safe  one  to  use. 

Peaches  and  citrus  trees  may  be  planted  together. 
The  quincunx  method  may  be  used  and  after  the  peaches 
have  served  their  term  of  usefulness  they  can  be  removed. 
Both  kinds  of  trees  succeed  well  when  given  the  same 
kind  of  cultivation  and  supplied  with  the  same  fertilizer, 
viz.,  one  containing  no  organic  sources  of  nitrogen. 

Other  double  plantings  may  be  made,  but  in  general 
it  may  be  said  that  no  tree  or  plant  should  be  set  with 
citrus  trees  and  allowed  to  occupy  the  ground  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  latter.  Vegetables  are  permissible  in  the 
citrus  grove  only  in  regions  not  exposed  to  frost,  and 
when  supplied  with  fertilizers  congenial  to  the  trees.  In 
frosty  regions  there  is  always  a  chance  that  the  cultiva- 
tion, fertilizing  and  watering  of  the  soil,  when  planted  in 
vegetables,  will  cause  the  trees  to  grow  during  the  winter 
months.  Generally,  vegetables  should  be  planted  else- 
where than  in  the  citrus  grove,  for  the  trees  succeed  best 
when  given  all  the  space. 

LEVELING    AND    SMOOTHING. 

Lands  upon  which  citrus  trees  are  to  be  planted  are 
frequently  quite  rough.  If  the  ground  is  left  in  this  con- 


242  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

dition,  its  uneven  character  will  prove  to  be  a  consider- 
able nuisance  in  after  years.  It  will  interfere  with  all 
kinds  of  horse  work  among  the  trees.  Pains  should  be 
taken  to  have  the  ground  level  and  smooth.  Small,  abrupt 
elevations  or  knolls  should  be  removed.  Long,  sweeping 
slopes  are  not  objectionable,  and  if  they  give  the  right 
exposure,  they  are  a  decided  advantage.  In  the  irriga- 
tion districts  they  are  quite  necessary  for  the  successful 
distribution  and  disposal  of  the  water.  But  in  those  dis- 
tricts small  knolls,  two  or  three  feet  in  height,  or  even 
less  may  act  as  a  barrier  over  which  water  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully carried.  Grading  should  be  very  carefully  done 
before  planting,  and  only  after  a  careful  survey  of  the 
ground.  In  fact,  the  best  advice  that  can  be  given  is  to 
turn  this  part  of  the  work  over  to  a  competent  surveyor 

Before  attempting  to 
grade  the  ground,  it 
should  be  plowed.  The 
depth  will  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  the  character  of 

Fig.  60.     Float  for  smoothing  ground.  th6   SUrfaCC.       It    may    be 

necessary    to    use    the 

scraper  to  remove  some  of  the  knolls,  in  which  case  the 
plow  should  be  run  somewhat  deeper  on  the  higher  por- 
tion. If  only  very  slight  inequalities  are  present,  they 
may  be  disposed  of  by  harrowing  after  plowing  and  then 
following  the  harrow  with  the  float  or  planker  shown  in 
fig.  60. 

This  is  made  of  six  pieces  of  8x2  inch  plank,  seven 
feet  long.  Two  of  these  are  rounded  off  at  each  end  and 
a  hole  is  bored  in  one  end  of  each  piece.  These  two  pieces 
are  then  notched  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  notches  on 


PREPARATIONS    FOR   PLANTING.  243 

the  two  pieces  must  correspond,  and  the  first  notch  should 
be  cut  about  a  foot  back  from  the  front  end.  They  are 
two  inches  deep  at  the  front,  and  slope  out  to  the  edge  of 
the  plank  six  inches  back,  thus  leaving  two  inches  of  the 
plank  for  overlapping.  The  six  pieces  of  plank  are  then 
laid  in  the  notches  and  nailed  or  bolted  firmly  in  place. 
A  chain  is  run  through  the  holes  already  provided  and 
to  this  the  wkiflletrees  are  attached.  This  has  proved 
to  be  a  very  satisfactory  device  for  leveling  lumps  and 
even  for  filling  up  shallow  depressions. 

DISTANCES    FOR    PLANTING. 

Growers  differ  greatly  regarding  the  distance  apart 
at  which  citrus  trees  should  be  set.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
no  set  of  distances  can  be  given  which  will  be  best  for  all 
conditions.  Many  things  have  to  be  considered  in  decid- 
ing the  point.  Much  depends  upon  the  natural  moisture 
content  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  water  that  can  be  se- 
cured, either  by  irrigation  or  from  rainfall,  the  amount  of 
fertility  in  the  soil,  the  kind  of  stocks,  the  variety  of 
tree,  and  whether  it  is  necessary  to'  protect  the  trees  from 
frost — all  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  A  canvass 
of  the  situation  in  Florida  some  years  ago  showed  that 
sweet  oranges  are,  or  have  been,  planted  all  the  way 
from  15x15  feet  to  35x35  feet;  pomelos  the  same;  manda- 
rins 15x15  feet  to  25x25  feet ;  lemons  20x20  feet  to  30x40 
feet;  and  limes  15x15  feet  to  20x20  feet. 

If  the  trees  are  planted  in  a  region  subject  to  frost, 
and  protection  by  means  of  open  wood  fires  is  to1  be  prac- 
ticed, it  is  best  to  plant  the  trees  so  as  to  leave  sufficient 
space  for  firing.  A  plan  sometimes  adopted  is  to  plant 
sweet  orange  trees  15x15  feet  and  omit  every  third  row. 
It  must  be  remembered  also  that  the  effects  of  frost  or 


244  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

freezes  is  not  so  severe  on  densly  planted  groves  as  it  is 
where  the  trees  are  separated  by  wide  avenues  through 
which  the  wind  can  sweep  unchecked. 

The  insect  problem  must  be  considered  as  well.  If 
spraying  or  fumigating  has  to  be  adopted  to  control  in- 
sect pests,  the  trees  should  stand  sufficiently  far  apart 
to  allow  either  of  these  operations  to  be  carried  on  con- 
veniently. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  if  the  trees  are  planted 
in  rectangles,  it  is  better  to  place  them,  not  in  squares, 
but  in  oblongs,  the  spaces  between  the  tree  rows  being 
greater  than  the  distance  between  the  trees  in  the  row. 

The  following  distances  may  be  regarded  as  being 
approximately  correct,  though  much  depends  upon  the 
habit  of  growth  of  the  different  varieties  in  each  group: 

Kumquats  10  to  12  feet. 

Mandarin  oranges  15  to  20  feet. 

Lemons  and  sweet  oranges   20  to  25  feet. 

Pomelos   25  to  30  feet. 

Limes    15  to  20  feet. 

LAYING  OUT  BEFORE  PLANTING. 

The  trees  should  stand  in  straight  rows.  It  looks 
better  and  cultivation  is  easier.  Nothing  looks  worse  than 
zigzag  rows  of  trees,  and  it  is  impossible  to  plow  or  cul- 
tivate straight  through  the  grove. 

Laying  Out  Squares  or  Rectangles  with  the  Plow. 
If  a  good  plowman  can  be  secured,  very  satisfactory  work 
can  be  done  with  the  plow.  In  some  cases  a  man  can  be 
found  who  needs  nothing  in  the  way  of  a  guide,  except 
two  or  three  stakes.  But  with  a  sufficient  number  of 
stakes  and  a  marker  attached  to  the  plow,  good  results 
can  be  secured  by  almost  any  plowman. 


PREPARATIONS    FOR   PLANTING.  245 

Furrows  should  be  run  both  lengthwise  and  crosswise 
of  the  field,  their  intersections  marking  the  place  where 
the  trees  are  to  stand.  A  stake  should  be  set  for  each 
tree,  ordinary  building  laths  answering  very  well  for  this 
purpose. 

It  is  essential  that  a  true,  square  corner  should  be 
secured.  This  may  be  done  by  sighting  with  an  ordinary 
carpenter's  square  set  upon  three  posts. 

Laying  Out  in  Rectangles  with  a  Wire.  A  wire  long 
enough  to  reach  down  one  side  of  the  field  should  be  pro- 
vided. Stretch  this  straight  out  between  two  posts  and 
mark  off  the  distance  which  the  trees  are  to  stand  apart, 
upon  it.  At  each  point  marked  firmly  twist  a  piece  of 
small  wire  about  the  larger  one.  These  should  then  be 
soldered  in  place.  It  will  not  do  to  have  them  shift.  This 
wire  may  be  rolled  upon  a  roller  when  not  in  use. 

Measure  off  along  both  ends  of  the  field  and  set  small 
pickets  on  the  tree  rows.  Tightly  stretch  the  wire  down 
the  first  tree  row,  attaching  it  firmly  at  the  ground  level 
to  a  pair  of  good,  stout  posts.  Then  plant  a  lath  stake 
at  each  mark  on  the  wire.  Set  all  of  them  on  the  outside 
of  the  wire,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  moving  it.  When 
this  row  is  completed,  lift  the  end  stakes  with  the  wire  at- 
tached, stretch  on  the  second  row,  set  the  stakes  as  be- 
fore and  repeat  the  operations  until  the  work  is  com- 
pleted. 

Laying  Out  in  Triangles.  This  system  can  be  most 
easily  marked  out  by  using  the  wire  already  described. 
On  every  other  row  stretch  the  wire,  so  that  exactly  one- 
half  of  a  tree  space  will  lie  outside  the  end  tree  row,  then 
proceed  to  set  the  stakes  on  the  marks  on  the  wire  as  be- 
fore. 


246  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Laying  Out  in  Hexagons.  Stretch  the  wire  down  one 
side  of  the  field  and  firmly  set  the  tree  stakes,  or  stake 
out  the  base  line  by  any  method,  firmly  setting  a  stake 
for  each  tree.  Then  procure  two  pieces  of  wire  with  rings 
at  each  end,  the  length  of  wire  and  rings  to  be  exactly 
the  distance  between  the  stakes  as  set  on  the  base  line. 
Stretch  these  wires  out  toward  the  side  where  the  next  tree 
row  is  to  stand.  At  the  point  where  the  rings  overlap 
set  a  stake  for  a  tree.  Remove  wire  number  one  and  set 
it  on  the  third  stake  in  the  base  line,  stretch  the  two  tight 
and  set  a  tree  stake.  Repeat  as  often  as  necessary.  In 
setting  the  third  row  of  stakes,  use  the  second  as  a  base 
line  and  so  on. 

Laying  Out  in  Quincunx.  By  this  method  the  trees 
are  in  groups  of  five,  four  forming  a  square,  the  fifth 
placed  in  the  center. 

The  best  plan  is  to  lay  out  with  a  wire,  though  the 
plow  may  be  used.  In  setting  with  the  wire,  each  space 
on  the  wire  should  be  divided  in  the  center  and  marked 
as  before.  If,  for  instance,  to  reduce  the  discussion  to  a 
concrete  form,  we  say  the  trees  are  to  be  set  in  squares 
of  twenty-seven  feet,  with  a  fifth  in  the  center,  divide  the 
spaces  on  the  wire  and  mark  each  one  at  the  thirteen-and- 
a-half-foot  point.  On  the  base  line  set  the  trees  at  the 
twenty-seven-foot  point.  Then  stretch  the  line  for  the  next 
row,  thirteen  and  a  half  feet  in  from  the  base  line.  On 
this  row  set  the  stakes  at  the  thirteen-and-a-half-foot 
marks,  thus  leaving  the  stakes  twenty-seven  feet  apart  as 
before.  Set  the  third  row  to  correspond  with  the  base 
line,  the  fourth  with  the  second,  and  proceed  in  this  way 
until  the  work  is  completed. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 
SETTING  THE  GROVE. 

The  planting  of  the  trees  is  the  actual  starting  of 
the  grove  and  any  reasonable  amount  of  time  and  care 
spent  in  the  operation  is  well  spent.  All  the  details  should 
be  carefully  looked  after  and  the  work  should  be  done 
either  under  the  supervision  of  a  competent  foreman  or 
under  the  direction  of  the  owner  himself.  The  varieties 
must  be  selected,  the  trees  purchased,  the  ground  laid  out 
and  the  trees  set.  When  the  ground  is  placed  about  the 
last  tree,  mulched  and  shaded  on  the  south  side,  the  work 
may  be  considered  finished. 

SELECTING    VARIETIES. 

In  the  colder  or  more  exposed  sections  it  is  best  to 
plant  the  hardier  varieties  and  those  which  mature  early. 
The  fruit  will  not  stand  the  same  amount  of  frost  as  the 
tree,  and  if  it  is  sufficiently  mature  to  pick  before  the 
cold  comes  on  it  is  a  decided  advantage;  the  cost  of  pro- 
tection will  be  materially  lessened.  But  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  for  early  shipments  from  any  section,  early 
maturing  varieties  should  be  planted.  Green  fruit  should 
not  be  shipped,  just  because  the  market  happens  to  be 
good.  It  is  ruinous  to  the  reputation  of  any  section  that 
carries  on  the  practice. 

Groves  in  sections  farther  south  or  free  from  the 
effects  of  frost  should  pay  attention  to  late  varieties  such 
as  cannot  be  safely  matured  in  sections  more  exposed  to 
frosts.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  either  very  early  or  very  late 
fruit  brings  the  most  money  in  the  markets  and  by  grow- 


248  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

ing  late  varieties  competition  with  the  sections  growing 
early  varieties  would  be  obviated. 

It  is,  however,  the  best  policy,  where  weather  condi- 
tions permit,  to  make  a  selection  of  such  varieties  as  will 
give  fruit  continually  from  the  early  shipping  season 
until  the  end.  The  grower  who  can  do  this  has  his  fruit 
in  the  market  all  the  time  and  if  his  fruit  is  of  good 
quality  and  it  is  handled  as  it  should  be,  his  customers 
can  be  held  for  the  whole  season.  Most  handlers  of 
fruit  much  prefer  a  steady  supply  of  fruit  from  a  relia- 
ble shipper  to  having  it  come  in  spasmodically. 

The  number  of  varieties  selected  should  not  be  large. 
Only  he  who  grows  citrus  fruits  as  an  amusement  or 
the  nurseryman  who  desires  to  have  a  known  and  relia- 
ble source  from  which  to  secure  budwood,  or  who  desires 
to  test  the  relative  merits  of  varieties,  should  attempt 
the  planting  of  any  large  number.  In  dollars  and  cents, 
it  does  not  pay  the  ordinary  man.  Select,  at  most,  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  varieties  to  give  a  continuous  crop  of 
good  sized,  marketable  oranges  throughout  the  shipping 
season  and  stop  at  that. 

Just  because  certain  varieties  fruit  well  in  some 
sections  and  bring  fancy  prices,  planters  too  fre- 
quently jump  at  the  conclusion  that  the  same  varieties 
will  do  as  well  in  other  localities  far  removed  from  that 
in  which  they  are  apparently  at  home.  In  California, 
the  Bahia  is  the  commercial  orange,  but  it  would  be  folly 
for  a  Florida  grower  to  plant  large  areas  with  this  vari- 
ety. They  fruit  fairly  well  on  rough  lemon  and  trifol- 
iate orange  stock,  but  even  then  it  is  extremely  doubt- 
ful whether  the  variety  will  hold  and  mature  sufficient 
fruit  to  make  it  profitable.  The  point  in  question  is 
further  illustrated  bv  the  action  of  some  California 


SETTING  THE  GROVE.  249 

planters  immediately  following  the  disastrous  freeze  in 
Florida — 1894-95.  The  demand  for  pomelos  could  not 
be  supplied  and  the  price  increased  enormously,  which 
led  many  in  the  western  State  to  plant  heavily.  In  1900 
Professor  Wickson  said,  "The  results  of  these  attempts 
were  not  satisfactory,  and  unless  some  new  conditions 
should  arise,  it  is  possible  that  the  California  pomelo 
passion  may  subside  as  rapidly  as  it  uprose."  Florida 
varieties  were  the  ones  planted,  but  Lelong  points  out 
that  some  varieties  of  California  origin  have  been  more 
successful  since. 

Another  problem,  one  which  frequently  arises,  is  that 
concerning  the  relative  number  of  each  citrus  group  which 
should  be  planted.  In  most  groves  there  are  to  be  found 
a  number  of  pomelos,  mandarin  oranges  and  sweet 
oranges.  How  many  of  each  group  would  it  be  well  to 
set  out?  No  one  can  say  but  the  man  who  is  going  to 
set  them.  He  should  know  best  what  his  aims  and  objects 
are.  The  mandarin  orange  is  a  fancy  fruit  of  exquisite 
quality,  but  is  a  fancy  fruit;  the  sweet  orange  is  a  staple 
commodity,  always  in  demand  and  never  out  of  season; 
the  pomelo  has  become  a  staple  fruit  and  all  markets 
have  not  been  reached  yet.  It  is  a  new  fruit  commercially, 
but  it  has  come  to  stay.  The  writer  once  said,  "The  sweet 
orange  must,  however,  be  considered  the  staple  product, 
and  it  would  probably  be  best  to  make  three-quarters  of 
the  planting  from  this  group,  leaving  the  remaining  one- 
fourth  to  be  divided  between  the  pomelos  and  mandarin 
oranges,"  but  now  he  is  prepared  to  place  the  pomelos 
with  the  sweet  orange  in  a  commercial  venture,  in  sections 
where  both  will  grow  and  fruit  equally  well. 


250  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PURCHASING    TREES. 

Citrus  nursery  stock  matures  in  autumn  and  is  put 
on  the  market  during  the  winter  months — November  to 
March.  Whether  for  winter  or  summer  planting,  the  trees 
should  be  purchased  in  good  season.  Then  there  will  be 
fewer  disappointments.  Buy  in  September  or  October 
at  latest.  "First  come,  first  served,"  is  true  in  purchas- 
ing nursery  trees,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  he  who  comes 
first  will  be  best  served.  Generally  speaking,  the  supply 
of  nursery  stock  in  California  and  Florida  is  inadequate 
to  the  demand  and  may  continue  to  be  so  for  several 
seasons  to  come. 

As  a  general  rule  it  is  best  to  purchase  directly  from 
the  nurseryman.  Beware  of  the  unaccredited  tree  peddler 
as  you  would  of  the  very  devil !  The  expression  may  not  be 
elegant,  but  it  contains  the  soundest  advice.  A  legitimate 
nursery  business  may  be  done  through  properly  accredited 
agents,  but  too  frequently  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  definite 
information  regarding  the  kind  of  stock,  and  where  it  is 
grown.  Should  a  mistake  of  any  kind  occur  in  deal- 
ing with  a  responsible  nurseryman,  he  will  always  be 
found  willing  to  rectify  it,  but  if  a  mistake  be  made 
through  an  agent,  the  responsibility  is  too  frequently 
shifted. 

If  possible,  visit  the  nursery.  See  the  conditions 
under  which  the  trees  are  grown,  make  a  thorough  inspec- 
tion and  select  the  trees  desired.  Become  personally  ac- 
quainted with  the  nurseryman.  Buy  only  from  those  of 
good  repute.  In  most  cases  there  are  no  marks  by  which 
the  genuineness  of  a  variety  may  be  known  and  in  the 
end  the  only  assurance  the  planter  can  have  that  the 
stock  is  true  to  name,  is  the  truth  and  honesty  of  the  man 
from  whom  he  purchases.  Fortunate  is  the  nurseryman 


SETTING  THE  GROVE.  251 

whose  character  warrants  a  reputation  for  square,  honest 
dealing. 

The  best  citrus  tree  for  setting  out  is  one  having  a 
root  system  about  three  or  four  years  old  with  a  stocky, 
healthy,  vigorous  top  of  one  or  two  season's  growth 
Trees  should  be  free  from  insect  pests  and  should  not 
show  signs  of  poor,  stunted  growth.  Nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  should  they  show  evidence  in  long  internodes* 
and  sappy,  angular  growth,  of  having  been  unduly  forced 
to  bring  them  up  to  size.  Some  have  thought  to  gain 
time  by  purchasing  large  nursery  trees,  four  or  five  years 
old  or  even  older,  but  in  the  end  they  have  generally 
found  that  nothing  is  gained  and  frequently  much  is 
lost.  If  given  particular  care  and  attention,  well  sup- 
plied with  water  and  planted  in  a  favorable  season,  they 
sometimes  repay  the  trouble,  but  speaking  broadly,  such 
trees  are  a  poor  investment  for  the  average  planter.  No 
mistake  can  be  made  in  selecting  first-class  trees  fourf 
to  six  feet  high.  The  very  best  that  can  be  secured  are 
the  cheapest  in  the  end,  and  poor  stock  is  dear  at  any 
price.  Have  nothing  to  do  with  hard,  stunted  stock. 

Trees  on  trifoliate  stock  are  more  difficult  to  trans- 
plant than  on  other  stocks  and  if  this  stock  is  used,  the 
purchaser  should  insist  that  the  nurseryman  puddle  the 
roots  before  shipment.  The  crust  of  mud  should  be 
washed  off  just  before  planting. 

The  price  of  citrus  stock  is,  of  course,  subject  to  the 
laws  of  supply  and  demand.  In  Florida  the  price  varies 
in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  tree.  At  present  the  price 
of  first-class  nursery  trees  per  hundred  is  about  as  fol- 


*  Spaces  on  the  branch  between  leaves,  thorns  or  buds. 

t  In  California,  nursery  trees  are  usually  sold  by  the  diameter  of 
the  bud  one  inch  above  the  point  of  insertion. 


252  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

lows:  2  to  3  feet,  $25.00;  3  to  4  feet,  $30.00;  4  to  5  feet, 
$40.00;  and  5  to  7  feet,  $50.00.  In  lots  of  1,000  the 
prices  are  from  4  to  6  per  cent  lower  and  for  smaller 
lots  they  are  increased  considerably.  In  California,  trees 
are  sold  by  caliper  measurement  of  the  bud  one  inch  above 
the  point  of  insertion.  The  prices  are  furnished  by  Mr. 
R.  M.  Teague,  of  the  San  Dimas  Nurseries,  San  Dimas, 
Gal.,  for  one-year-old  trees  are  as  follows:  3-8  to  1-2  inch 
caliper,  50  to  70  cents  each,  1-2  to  5-8  inch  caliper,  60  to 
80  cents  each,  5-8  inch  caliper  and  over,  70  to  90  cents, 
depending  upon  the  variety.  Trees  lifted  with  a  40-lb. 
ball  of  earth,  or  less,  cost  five  cents  extra  and  two-year- 
old  buds  with  a  60  to  75-lb.  ball  of  earth,  ten  cents  extra. 

It  is  probable  that  a  combination  of  the  Florida  and 
California  methods  would  be  advisable,  that  is  to  desig- 
nate both  the  height  and  diameter  of  the  trees  in  listing 
them  for  sale. 

If  orders  arrive  late,  the  vexed  question  of  substitu- 
tion of  varieties  usually  arises.  But  if  the  orders  have 
been  placed  in  good  season  this  difficulty  is  not  so  likely 
to  come  up.  The  planter  with  well  defined  ideas  of  what 
he  wants  should  be  content  with  nothing  except  what  he 
orders.  Provided  one  nurseryman  cannot  supply  the 
desired  trees,  try  elsewhere  before  changing  the  list  of  var- 
ieties. In  some  cases,  varieties  are  so  nearly  alike  that 
substitution  may  be  permissible. 

The  directions  for  shipment  should  be  plain  and  ex- 
plicit. Give  the  route,  the  time  when  shipment  is  to  be 
made  and  write  the  address  plainly. 

BEST    TIME    TO    PLANT. 

As  already  noted,  citrus  trees  are  not  periodic  in 
their  growth.  Several  growths  are  made  each  year  and 


SETTING  THE  GROVE.  253 

so  long  as  they  are  transplanted  during  their  dormant 
periods,  they  may  be  set  out  at  almost  any  season  of  the 
year  so  far  as  the  condition  of  the  tree  is  concerned. 
But  while  this  is  true,  much  better  results  attend  the 
transplanting  of  the  trees  at  certain  periods  than  at 
others,  because  of  more  favorable  climatic  conditions. 
The  best  time  for  setting  citrus  trees  in  California  is  in 
spring,  just  after  the  completion  of  the  first  growth  and 
before  the  starting  of  the  second. 

In  Florida  and  the  Islands,  trees  may  be  planted 
during  the  winter  months  or  just  after  the  beginning  of 
the  rainy  season.  Some  hesitate  to  plant  in  winter  in 
certain  sections,  because  of  the  risk  of  injury  from  frost, 
but,  all  things  considered,  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  set 
the  trees  then  and,  if  necessary,  bank  them  immediately 
after  planting.  Bearing  in  mind  that  the  dry  season  in 
Florida  generally  commences  in  March,  it  is  best  to  set 
the  trees  some  time  between  December  15th  and  Febru- 
ary 15th.  The  winter  rains  will  settle  the  soil  firmly 
about  the  roots,  the  roots  may  make  some  growth,  the 
cut  surfaces  will  at  least  callus,  and  with  the  warmer 
days  of  spring  they  will  start  off  vigorously.  Summer 
planting  is  quite  successful,  if  the  trees  can  be  secured 
in  a  dormant  state  and  sufficient  water  is  provided  either 
by  irrigation  or  by  rainfall.  It  sometimes  happens,  how- 
ever, that  summer  planted  trees  have  a  tendency  to  pro- 
long their  growth  too  late  in  the  fall. 

PLANTING. 

When  trees  are  shipped  in  boxes  or  bales,  as  is  most 
commonly  done,  they  should  be  unpacked  as  soon  as  re- 
ceived and  heeled  in,  in  a  shady  place.  Plow  out  a  fur- 
row of  sufficient  length  to  accommodate  the  trees  when 


254  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

spread  out  singly,  side  by  side.  With  a  shovel  slope  off  the 
furrow  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  place  the  roots  of 
the  trees  in  the  furrow,  spread  the  roots  out  well,  pack 
the  earth  about  them  and  water. 

Everything  having  been  arranged  for  planting,  remove 
the  trees  from  the  furrow,  a  few  at  a  time  as  needed  for 
setting,  trim  the  roots  and  wrap  them  in  a  damp  blanket 
for  carrying  to  the  field.  Under  no  consideration  should 


X 


1  j& 


Fig.   61.     Branching  of  citrus  roots  in  the  soil  after 
trimming. 

the  strong  sunlight  or  the  wind  be  allowed  to  strike  the 
roots.  The  roots  of  citrus  trees  are  extremely  susceptible 
to  injury  from  these  causes. 

In  trimming  the  roots,  remove  the  broken  ones,  cut- 
ting them  smoothly  off  with  a  sloping  cut  from  the  under 
side.  The  advantage  of  a  smoothly  cut  root  end  over 
a  torn  and  ragged  one  is  that  it  calluses  and  heals  much 
more  readily.  From  the  root  just  back  of  the  callus,  large 
numbers  of  small  roots  start  out  (fig  61),  which  soon 


SETTING  THE  GROVE. 


255 


Fig.  62.  Pruning  and  root  trimming  of 
citrus  tree  at  time  of  planting.  Four- 
year  tree  on  trifoliate  stock,  5  feet  6 
inches  from  crown  to  top  of  branches. 
Cuts  to  be  made  where  the  lines  cross 
the  roots,  stems,  branches  and  leaves. 


take  the  place  and  do 
the  work  of  the  por- 
tion removed.  A  good- 
ly portion  of  the  small, 
fibrous  roots,  all  if  they 
have  become  slightly 
dried,  should  be  re- 
moved and  all  roots 
should  be  cut  back 
somewhat  at  the  tips. 
Where  a  double  tap- 
root is  found,  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  best 
to  leave  one  of  the 
parts  somewhat  longer 
than  the  other. 
Some  idea  of  the  root 
systems  of  trees  as 
they  come  from  the 
nursery  and  the 
method  of  trimming 
them  may  be  secured 
from  an  examination 
of  figures  62  and  65. 

If  possible  to  so  ar- 
range the  work,  the 
holes  should  not  be 
dug  until  just  before 
planting.  The  soil 
will  still  contain  its 
natural  moisture  when 
placed  about  the  trees 
and  in  some  soils  the 


250 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


sides  of  the  holes  become  hard  and  compact,  so  much  so  as 
to  necessitate  their  being  shaved  off  before  setting  the  tree 
in  them.  The  planting  board  shown  in  figure  64  is  very 
helpful  in  keeping  the  rows  of  trees  straight  in  the  grove. 
It  should  be  made  from  a  piece  of  inch  board,  four  or  five 
feet  long  and  four  inches  wide.  In  each  end  bore 
an  inch  hole  and  cut  a  notch  in  one  side  at  the 
center.  Place  the  notch  against  the  tree,  stake  and  shove 
a  pair  of  small  wooden  pegs  through  the  holes  in  the 
ends.  Remove  the  board  and  the  tree  stake,  leaving  the 
pegs  in  place.  Dig  the  hole,  making  it  large  enough  and 
deep  enough  to  hold  the  root  system  without  cramping. 
Place  the  planting  board  in  position  over  the  pegs  and 


Fig.  62.     The  right  way  to  plant  a  tree. 

holding  the  tree  in  the  central  notch,  fill  in  the  soil  with 
the  hands.  A  helper  may  place  the  earth  in  the  hole  in  small 


SETTING  THE  GROVE.  257 

shovelfuls.  Pack  the  soil  well  around  the  roots,  spread- 
ing and  straightening  ~~\j ~~ 

them   out   at  the  right  \*^._ .„_, „ ~~~.. rs 

level,    as    the    hole    is  Fig-  64-    Planting  board- 

filled  up.  Fig.  63  illustrates  the  best  method  of  planting 
a  tree,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  man  who  will  not  get 
down  on  his  knees  to  plant  a  tree  does  not  deserve  to  have 
it  live  for  him.  Trees  planted  in  poor  soil  will  be  much 
benefited  by  thoroughly  incorporating  a  pound  of  good 
commercial  fertilizer  with  the  soil  before  placing  it  about 
the  roots.  The  surface  and  subsoil  should  be  kept  sepa- 
rate, the  surface  soil  to  be  placed  in  first,  in  filling  up  the 
hole.  Water  may  be  applied  when  the  hole  is  filled  in 
about  three-fourths,  and  after  planting  is  completed  a 
liberal  supply  of  water,  sufficient  to  establish  the  capil- 
lary movement  of  the  soil  moisture  should  be  given.  In 
California  about  half  a  barrel  should  be  given  to  each 
tree.  Having  applied  the  water,  mulch  the  surface  with 
grass,  leaves  or  dry  dust  about  the  tree,  to  prevent  evapo- 
ration. In  the  irrigation  districts,  apply  water  every 
ten  or  fifteen  days  until  the  trees  are  well  established. 

Trees  should  never  be  set  deeper  than  they  stood  in 
the  nursery  row.  The  better  plan  is  to  set  them  higher 
rather  than  lower,  to  allow  for  settling.  They  do  not 
do  well  if  planted  too  deep. 

In  the  hot,  dry  districts,  the  trunks  of  the  young 
trees  should  be  protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  pre- 
vent sunburn.  Thousands  of  trees  are  annually  destroyed 
by  this  cause  and  many  others  are  so  injured  that  they 
never  afterward  make  a  satisfactory  growth.  Lath  cylin- 
ders or  those  made  of  yucca  or  paper  serve  the  purpose 
well.  The  trunks  may  be  wrapped  in  paper  or  straw,  or 
they  may  be  covered  with  whitewash. 

10 


258 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


As  soon  as  the  trees  are  set,  the  tops  should  be  pruned 
back.  It  is  better  to  do  it  at  this  time  than  before  plant- 
ing, as  more  uniform  trees  can  be  secured  throughout 
The  disposition  on  the  part  of  most  planters 


the  grove. 


Fig.  65.  Pruning-  and  root  trimming-  of  citrus  tree  at  time 
of  planting.  Two-year  Tardiff  orange  tree  on  a  four-year 
rough  lemon  root,  thirty  inches  from  crown  roots  to  branches. 
Cuts  to  be  made  where  lines  cross  the  roots  and  branches. 

is  to  retain  too  much  of  the  top.  When  the  trees  are 
lifted  from  the  nursery  row,  more  than  half  of  the  root 
system  is  left  in  the  ground.  The  top  and  leaf  area 


SETTING  THE  GROVE.  259 

should  be  reduced  proportionately  and  all  trees  should 
be  shipped  cut  back  and  defoliated.  If  the  trees  have  been 
grown  to  a  single  shoot,  without  branches,  they  should 
be  cut  off  with  a  sloping  cut  just  above  a  node,  about 
two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  from  the  ground.  If  well-de- 
veloped branches  are  found  at  this  height  or  perhaps  a 
little  higher,  trim  them  in  to  spurs  with  two  or  three 
buds.  Should  the  trees  not  start  promptly  they  should 
be  more  severely  cut  back.  Figures  63  and  65  illustrate 
the  methods  of  pruning  the  top  and  reducing  the  leaf 
area  of  citrus  trees. 

The  system  of  lifting  the  citrus  trees  with  a  ball  of 
earth  still  remaining  about  them  and  then  encasing  this 
in  a  sack  is  an  excellent  one.  The  trees  may  be  transported 
long  distances  and  planted  out  without  even  wilting  the 
foliage,  if  the  work  is  carefully  done.  To  lift  the  trees  a 
trench  is  dug  along  one  side  of  the  nursery  row,  about 
eighteen  inches  deep  and  six  or  eight  inches  away  from 
the  trees.  In  digging  this  trench,  the  layer  of  lateral 
roots  are  cut  off,  and  at  the  bottom  the  tap-root  is  sev- 
ered. The  top  soil  is  then  removed  so  as  to  barely  ex- 
pose the  crown  roots  and  a  sharp  spade  is  thrust  into  the 
soil  on  the  three  uncut  sides  to  sever  the  remaining  lat- 
erals. When  all  the  roots  have  been  cut  the  tree  is  care- 
fully lifted  from  its  place.  The  angles  are  rounded  off 
and  the  tree  is  set  on  a  piece  of  burlap  sufficiently  large 
to  completely  cover  the  ball.  The  burlap  is  carefully 
drawn  around  and  tied  about  the  earth.  The  size  of  the 
ball  should  correspond  with  the  size  of  the  tree.  Smaller 
trees  have  about  forty  pounds  of  earth,  larger  ones  about 
sixty.  This  method  of  digging  trees  cannot  be  pursued  on 
loose,  sandy  soils,  but  only  on  those  which  have  sufficient 
clay  to  make  the  ball  adhere  well  about  the  roots. 


260  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

THE  EEED  SYSTEM  OF  TRANSPLANTING. 

A  system  of  transplanting  citrus  trees  that  has  been 
used  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Reed,  of  Riverside,  California,  has 
proved  very  successful.  The  method  is  hardly  applica- 
ble to  Florida  conditions  on  account  of  the  loose  nature 
of  the  soils,  but  wherever  practicable,  it  is  an  excellent 
one  to  follow.  Prof.  J.  W.  Mills  thus  describes  it  in  Bui 
138,  Cal.  Agri.  Exp.  Station: 

"According  to  this  method,  vigorous  trees  are  selected 
in  the  nursery,  and  are  well  watered  before  removal. 
The  longer  branches  are  but  slightly  cut  back,  leaving 
most  of  the  foliage  on.  The  trees  are  then  lifted  with 
large  balls  of  earth,  and  are  taken  directly  to  the  plan- 
tation, where  holes  two  feet  deep  and  two  and  a  half  feet 
wide  have  been  prepared,  into  which  they  are  placed, 
and  the  earth  is  walled  in  around  each  ball,  not  firmed, 
but  settled  with  water,  so  that  the  trees  will  stand  at 
the  same  height  as  they  did  at  the  nursery.  No  planting 
should  be  done  unless  there  is  irrigation  water  availa- 
ble at  the  time.  After  the  ground  has  been  soaked  for 
several  feet  on  all  sides  of  the  newly  set  trees,  thorough 
cultivation  should  follow,  as  soon  as  the  land  is  in  a 
proper  condition.  Under  this  system  of  transplanting 
this  is  a  good  practice." 

"Mr.  Reed  says  further:  <A  small  amount  of  ferti- 
lizer is  applied  soon  after  planting,  for  the  young  roots 
to  use  when  they  first  start  out  from  the  balls.  A  pure 
bat  guano  with  a  high  percentage  of  nitrogen,  about  three- 
fourths  of  a  pound  to  the  tree,  has  been  found  to  give 
the  best  results;  but  any  commercial  fertilizer  rich  in 
nitrogen,  or  animal  fertilizer,  if  placed  properly  and  kept 
moist,  answers  well.  It  is  applied  in  trenches  each  side 
of  the  ball,  at  right  angles  with  the  irrigation  furrows, 


SETTING  THE  GROVE.  261 

and  reaching  to  them.  They  may  be  made  by  plowing 
a  deep  furrow  and  deepening  with  a  shovel  to  ten  or 
twelve  inches.  The  material  is  carefully  distributed  and 
slightly  mixed  with  the  earth  at  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
rows; the  water  from  the  irrigating  furrows  keeping 
this  always  moist,  it  is  available  as  soon  as  reached  by 
the  rootlets.  This  also  tends  to  deep  rooting.  Thorough 
irrigation  should  follow  planting  every  twelve  or  fifteen 
days  during  the  first  summer.  The  whole  space  between 
the  rows  should  be  thoroughly  and  deeply  wet — not 
merely  a  narrow  strip  on  each  side  of  the  rows.  I  have 
traced  roots  that  have  grown  during  the  first  summer 
over  six  feet  from  the  tree  and  these  should  be  well  sup- 
plied with  moisture  at  all  times. 

"The  advantage  claimed  for  the  Reed  method  is  that  it 
retains  the  top  of  the  tree,  and  makes  use  of  it  immedi- 
ately. This  retention  of  nearly  all  the  leaves  and 
branches  enables  trees  under  proper  conditions  to  pro- 
duce a  much  more  vigorous  growth  than  under  the  ordi 
nary  system  of  severe  pruning,  when  moved  from  the 
nursery.  The  best  care  is  essential  to  success  in  this 
method.  If  trees  are  to  receive  poor  or  only  ordinary 
treatment  after  being  set  in  the  orchard,  the  common 
method  of  severe  pruning  is  best.  Mr.  Heed  himself  prunes 
back  any  trees  that  show  lack  of  vigor  after  being  trans- 
planted, watered  and  fertilized. 

"The  good  start  given  to  trees  by  the  Reed  method 
is  shown  in  their  size,  vigor  and  productiveness  for  an 
indefinite  time,  and  it  is  also  claimed  that  a  crop  of 
oranges  is  obtained,  without  injury  to  the  trees,  one  year 
earlier  than  if  they  were  planted  by  the  usual  method. 
Trees  thus  planted  (on  the  Reed  system)  produced  over 
one  hundred  boxes  of  oranges  on  ten  acres  the  second 


262  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

year  from  planting,  and  one  box  per  tree  three  years 
from  the  time  of  planting.  Ten  acres  of  trees  five  years 
old  produced  2,500  boxes.  There  was  no  appreciable  in- 
jury done  the  young  trees  on  account  of  the  early  bearing, 
for  they  continued  to  make  a  sturdy  growth  while  ma- 
turing the  crop  of  fruit.  Trees  planted  in  the  usual  way 
one  year  before,  on  adjoining  land  that  is  similar  in  char- 
acter, although  receiving  good  care  from  the  start,  are 
not  now  as  large  as  those  of  Mr.  Reed,  though  apparently 
thrifty. 

"This  method  of  transferring  trees  to  the  orchard  and 
securing  their  rapid  establishment  there,  is  based  upon 
intelligent  selection  in  the  nursery  and  very  careful  at- 
tention to  details  after  transplanting.  Mr.  Reed  does 
not  claim  that  he  originated  the  method,  but  it  has  not 
been  observed  except  in  his  orchard,  which  furnishes  an 
excellent  illustration  of  its  value  under  proper  conditions." 

LABELS    AND    MAPS. 

After  the  trees 
— ~~-^^    have  been  plant- 
ed   and    pruned, 
they     should     be 
Fig.  66.    zinc  label.  labeled.   For  this 

purpose  there  is  nothing  better  than  a  piece  of  zinc,  five 
inches  long,  3-4  inch  wide  at  one  end  and  tapering  to  a 
point.  (Fig.  66).  On  this  the  name  is  simply  written 
with  a  lead  pencil  and  the  tapered  end  is  then  wrapped 
about  a  branch.  The  labels  should  be  placed  on  the  same 
side  of  each  of  the  trees  and  on  branches  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  like  positions.  If  many  varieties  are  planted  on 
any  considerable  area,  the  grove  should  be  mapped  and 
the  name  of  each  tree  and  its  position  designated  thereon. 
The  best  material  for  the  map  is  a  piece  of  glazed  muslin 
such  as  is  used  by  architects. 


CHAPTER    XXXII. 
CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES. 

There  is  probably  no  practice  connected  with  the 
growing  of  citrus  fruits  regarding  which  there  is  more 
difference  of  opinion  than  there  is  upon  the  question  of 
the  best  methods  of  cultivation.  In  the  citrus  districts 
of  America,  the  soils  are  so  varied  in  character  and  in 
the  amount  of  fertility  and  moisture  which  they  contain, 
that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  such  is  the  case.  To 
anyone  who  understands  the  nature  of  these  soils  it  must 
be  patent  that  in  a  large  measure,  the  system  of  cultiva- 
tion adopted  must  meet  the  requirements  of  the  particular 
soil.  After  all,  though  practices  may  differ  and  many 
different  methods  may  be  advocated,  it  will  generally  be 
found  that  underlying  each  and  every  system  from  which 
good  results  are  obtained,  there  is  some  broad,  general 
principle,  applicable  in  all  cases. 

Benefits  of  Tillage.  Because  of  their  loose,  open  na- 
ture', it  is  not  so  difficult  to  keep  citrus  fruit  lands  in  good 
condition.  Neither  the  same  amount  of  time,  nor  the  same 
amount  of  hard  labor  is  necessary  to  keep  citrus  groves 
in  good  tilth  as  is  required  by  fruit  plantations  in  most 
of  the  fruit  growing  districts  of  America.  Perhaps,  herein 
lies  the  reason  why  some  have  neglected  cultivation  alto- 
gether on  lands  that  would  be  benefited  by  it,  while  others 
have,  in  many  cases,  carried  the  practice  too  far.  But, 
if  our  soils  are  in  apparently  good  condition  and  roots 
can  easily  penetrate  them  in  all  directions,  then  in  what 
way  does  cultivation  benefit  the  trees  and  why  is  the  ope- 
ration necessary? 


264  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Cultivation  is  beneficial  in  the  following  ways :  It 
increases  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil  and  con- 
serves moisture,  both  by  allowing  rain  to  sink  more  freely 
into  it  and  by  checking  evaporation.  It  pulverizes  the 
soil  and  allows  the  air  to  penetrate,  thus  supplying  oxy- 
gen to  the  roots.  It  assists  in  setting  free  plant  food  and 
makes  the  soil  fine,  thus  enabling  the  roots  to  reach  all 
parts  of  it.  In  cultivated  soils,  decomposition  and  nitri- 
fication go  on  more  readily  and  if  the  materials  are  pres- 
ent from  which  nitrogen  can  be  set  free,  its  liberation 
takes  place  more  rapidly  than  if  the  soil  be  left  unculti- 
vated. 

Most  of  the  moisture  in  tillable  soil  is  held  as  a  mi- 
nute film  surrounding  the  soil  particles.  It  necessarily 
follows  that  the  more  numerous  the  soil  particles  in  a 
given  space,  i.  e.,  the  smaller  they  are,  the  greater  will 
be  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  because  the 
total  surface  area  of  all  the  particles  increases  as  they 
are  reduced  in  size.  And  it  is  true,  within  certain  limits, 
that  the  water-holding  capacity  of  a  soil  increases  as  the 
size  of  the  particles  diminishes.  If,  however,  the  particles 
become  too  small,  they  may  become  too  closely  packed,  and 
thus  this  object  of  cultivation  will  be  defeated.  This  con- 
dition is  not  likely  to  occur  in  light,  sandy  soils  as  a  re- 
sult of  cultivation.  The  size  of  the  particles  can  be  re- 
duced by  cultivation  by  breaking  up  masses  which  may 
have  become  more  or  less  cemented  together,  and  the  water- 
holding  capacity  may  be  thereby  increased. 

The  opening  and  loosening  of  the  soil  permits  the 
rain  to  penetrate.  If  the  surface  of  the  ground  becomes 
hard  and  compact,  the  water  will  run  over  the  surface  or 
collect  in  puddles  and  disappear  by  evaporation.  In  either 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  265 

case,  the  loss  will  be  great.    But  if  the  soil  is  well  stirred 
and  loose,  the  water  will  enter. 

Once  it  is  safely  beneath  the  surface,  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  it  there;  it  has  gained  entrance  by  a  passage 
through  which  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  escape.  The 
water  will  again  make  its  way  to  the  surface  by  capillary 
attraction,  passing  upward  through  the  minute  spaces 
between  the  particles  of  soil.  If  these  minute  tubes  or 
passages  extend  right  to  the  surface,  the  water  rises  to 
the  top,  comes  out  and  is  carried  away  by  evaporation. 
Frequent  shallow  cultivation  will  prevent  this  escape  of 
water,  by  breaking  the  capillary  tubes.  If  the  top  inch 
or  two  of  the  earth  is  stirred,  it  parts  with  its  moisture 
and  becomes  quite  dry.  Then  it  acts  as  a  dust  blanket 
and  the  great  amount  of  moisture  below  is  not  allowed 
to  reach  the  surface  to  be  carried  away  by  the  moving  air 
above.  Thus  moisture  is  conserved  and  held  for  the  use 
of  the  trees.  During  the  rainy  season,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  conserve  moisture,  but  often  in  April,  May  and  June 
in  Florida,  and  sometimes  even  later,  week  after  week 
goes  by  without  a  shower.  The  California  cultivator  is 
confronted  by  even  worse  conditions  and  must  resort  to 
irrigation.  During  the  period  of  drought  is  when  water  is 
needed,  the  time  for  which  preparation  should  be  made  be- 
fore it  comes.  The  horse  and  cultivator  are  often  a  most  j 
excellent  substitute  for  an  irrigation  plant. 

We  know  that  a  hard,  compact  soil,  into  which 
air  does  not  enter,  is  no  fit  place  for  the  roots  of  plants 
to  grow  and  live  in.  The  roots  absorb  water  and  food  in 
solution  only  through  their  newer  parts,  and  new  roots 
must  be  formed  constantly  to  carry  on  this  work.  For 
the  formation  of  roots,  oxygen  is  necessary,  and  if  the  air 
cannot  enter,  oxygen  cannot  be  supplied,  and  the  roots 


266  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

suffer  in  consequence.  The  soil  should  be  kept  loose  and 
friable  during  the  period  of  greatest  growth  that  the  roots 
may  be  freely  supplied  with  air. 

If,  in  addition  to  this,  the  rootlets  can  reach  and 
penetrate  every  portion  of  the  soil,  growing  here  and 
there  at  will,  they  then  have  every  opportunity  to  come  in 
contact  with  and  absorb  the  plant  food  in  the  soil.  While 
it  is  true  that  food  materials  in  solution  may  move  to- 
wards the  roots,  still,  in  general,  the  roots  must  search 
out  and  procure  the  plant  food.  How  can  they  do  this 
important  work  if  the  soil  is  hard,  compact  and  impene- 
trable? 

The  food  materials  in  any  soil  are  found  either  in 
chemical  substances  present  in  the  soil,  or  in  organic  com- 
binations. If  fertilizers  are  applied  or  added  to  the  soil, 
they,  too,  fall  into  either  one  or  the  other  of  these  classes. 
Most  of  these  materials  do  not  immediately  yield  up  the 
plant  food  which  they  contain,  but  they  must  be  acted 
upon  by  certain  agents  before  their  store  of  food  becomes 
available,  i.  e.,  so  that  the  roots  can  absorb  and  the  plants 
use  it.  A  large  part,  or  practically  all,  of  the  plant  food  in 
organic  substances  is  liberated  through  the  agency  of  mi- 
croscopic plants  called  bacteria.  That  these  may  thrive 
and  multiply,  plenty  of  air  should  be  admitted  to  the  soil. 
and  the  soil  should  at  the  same  time  be  warm  and  moist. 
Cultivation  goes  a  long  way  towards  making  the  condi- 
tions ideal  for  the  growth  and  development  of  soil  bac- 
teria. The  other  class  of  agents  is  those  which  act  chem- 
ically. To  this  group  belong  the  acids  and  other  sub- 
stances which  are  capable  of  breaking  up  the  food-con- 
taining materials  in  the  soil.  Some  of  these  disintegra- 
tors are  present  in  the  air,  and  are  carried  to  the  soil 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVE 8.  267 

in  the  rain.  Here,  again,  cultivation  helps  by  admitting  the 
air  to  the  soil  and  allowing  the  rain  to  penetrate. 

CLEAN  CULTURE  OR  NO  CULTURE. 

The  practice  of  keeping  the  ground  on  which  the 
orange  grove  stands  perfectly  free  from  herbage  and 
thoroughly  cultivated  throughout  the  whole  season,  year 
in  and  year  out,  has  been  indulged  in  by  many  and  is  still 
followed  by  some.  This  practice  has  little  to  recommend 
it.  A  soil  so  treated  soon  becomes  depleted  of  its  natu- 
ral fertility  and  the  humus  soon  becomes  used  up  through 
constant  cultivation  and  the  application  of  various  ferti- 
lizers. No  amount  of  fertilizer  will  do  the  work  it  should 
if  the  soil  once  loses  its  natural  body  and  becomes  defi- 
cient in  humus.  In  spite  of  every  effort  in  the  line  of  fer- 
tilizing, such  a  soil  will  become  poor  and  infertile  and  the 
trees  will  soon  show  the  effects  in  their  unhealthy  condi- 
tion, and  the  owner  will  realize  it  in  his  diminishing  re- 
turns. 

If  clean  culture  is  adopted,  humus  must  be  supplied 
in  some  way,  and  the  plan  used  by  a  number  of  success- 
ful growers  in  the  citrus  districts  is  to  cover  the 
ground  with  a  liberal  coating  of  leaves  and  leaf  mold 
from  an  adjoining  woods.  By  this  means,  a  mulch  and 
the  material  from  which  humus  may  be  formed  are  pro- 
vided for  the  soil.  It  is  far  easier  to  maintain  the  humus 
content  of  soils  than  it  is  to  replace  it  after  it  has  been 
once  worked  out  of  them,  a  fact  which  it  is  well  to  bear 
in  mind. 

Humus,  one  of  the  most,  if  not  the  most  important 
ingredient  in  any  fertile  soil,  is  generally  found  in  inade- 
quate amounts  in  citrus  soils,  and  any  system  of  cultiva- 
tion which  does  not  tend  to  increase  the  amount  or  main- 


268  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

tain  a  considerable  quantity  of  this  substance  in  the  soil 
is  not  based  upon  scientific  principles. 

Any  piece  of  ground  denuded  of  its  natural  covering 
of  vegetation,  and  so  exposed  continually  to  the  burning 
heat  of  a  sub-tropical  sun,  rapidly  loses  most  of  its  fer- 
tility and  becomes  dead,  lifeless  and  useless.  The  soil 
must  not  be  regarded  only  as  a  place  for  roots  to  grow 
and  live,  in,  it  must  be  looked  upon  as  nature's  food-pro- 
ducing laboratory,  in  which  multitudes  of  micro-organ- 
isms or  bacteria,  are  busily  engaged  in  preparing  food 
for  the  plants  which  grow  on  it.  They  fail  utterly  in 
the  performance  of  their  work  if  their  natural  element, 
a  soil  rich  in  humus,  is  by  some  means  converted  into  a 
sandbank.  This  is  exactly  the  result  of  long-continued, 
clean  cultivation. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  growers  do  not  cultivate 
the  soil  at  all,  and  on  some  classes  of  soil,  this  method  is 
really  the  best.  Only  on  naturally  moist  soils,  low,  damp 
hammocks  in  Florida,  for  instance,  should  this  plan  be 
adopted.  On  high  pine  lands,  or  on  those  lands  naturally 
deficient  in  moisture,  it  is  not  a  safe  method  to  follow. 
Cultivation  conserves  soil  moisture,  and  increases  the 
water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  Perhaps  never  before 
in  the  history  of  citrus  culture  in  Florida  was  the  neces- 
sity for  frequent  cultivation  so  forcibly  borne  in  upon 
the  minds  of  all  thinking  growers  as  it  was  in  the  spring 
of  the  year  1902,  and  yet  if  all  the  moisture,  or  even  a 
considerable  portion  of  that  which  the  soil  contained  at 
the  beginning  of  the  season  could  have  been  held  and 
dealt  out  gradually  to  the  trees,  there  would  have  been 
sufficient  for  their  needs.  Frequent  shallow  cultivation 
would  have  helped  materially  in  this  direction. 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  269 

In  June,  1902,  two  samples  of  soil  were  taken  as  rep- 
resentative of  cultivated  and  uncultivated  soil.  Both 
were  from  the  horticultural  grounds  of  the  Florida  Ex- 
periment Station,  one  from  soil  planted  in  citrus  trees, 
cultivated  frequently  from  March  until  that  time,  the 
other  from  a  piece  of  ground  which  had  received  no  cul- 
tivation at  all  during  the  season,  but  which  had  lain  bare 
and  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  samples  were  weighed,  then 
dried  and  weighed  again.  The  weights  and  differences 
were  as  follows: 

Cultivated  soil- 
Weight  when  collected    247.8  grains. 

Weight   after   drying    230.5    grams. 

Loss  of  moisture  in  drying    ....       17.3  grams. 

Uncultivated  soil- 
Weight   when    collected    251.4  grams. 

Weight    after   drying 240.9  grams. 

Loss  of  moisture  in  drying 10.5  grams. 

Per  cent,  of  moisture  in  sample  No.  1— 
17.3-5-247.8  x  100=6.97% 

Per  cent,  of  moisture  in  sample  No.  2 — 
10.5-J-251.4  x  100=4.  Yl% 

The  cultivated  soil  contained  6.97  per  cent,  moisture, 
while  the  uncultivated  soil  contained  4.17  per  cent,  mois- 
ture— a  difference  in  favor  of  the  former  of  2,8  per  cent, 
or,  expressed  otherwise,  cultivation  had  increased  the 
moisture  content  of  the  soil  by  66.5  per  cent.  It  is  true 
that  the  water-holding  capacity  of  most  citrus  soils,  and 
particularly  of  those  rich  in  humus,  is  well  up  to  the 
average,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  every  effort  should 
not  be  made  to  hold  and  conserve  the  moisture  for  use 
during  periods  of  drouth.  Lands  deficient  in  moisture 


270  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

should  be  cultivated  frequently  during  the  first  half  of 
the  year,  or  rather  from  the  conimencetnent  of  the  grow- 
ing season  until  the  rainy  season  begins  in  districts  where 
the  heaviest  rainfall  comes  in  summer. 

Humus  and  Its  Value.  Humus  is  a  product  of  the 
decay  of  organic  substances.  When  these  undergo  de- 
composition in  the  soil,  humus  is  the  intermediate  product 
formed;  that  is,  just  before  the  resolution  of  the  organic 
material  into  its  component  chemical  parts.  It  is  prob- 
ably not  too  much  to  say  that  humus  is  the  most  impor- 
tant substance  found  in  any  fertile  soil  and  its  presence 
may  generally  be  taken  as  the  index  of  fertility.  The 
truth  of  this  statement  may  be  realized  more  fully  when 
we  remember  the  fact  that  all  barren  soils  are  lacking  in 
this  substance  and  the  chief  difference  between  a  barren 
and  a  fertile  soil  is  usually  a  difference  in  humus  content, 
not  in  the  mineral  ingredients. 

The  changes  which  are  constantly  taking  place  in 
soil  may  be  grouped  as  physical,  chemical  and  biologi- 
cal. The  first  relates  to  movement  of  water,  the  size  of 
the  particles  and  the  mechanical  changes,  such  as  those 
produced  by  the  displacement  of  the  soil  particles  by  ani- 
mals or  the  roots  of  plants.  The  second  includes  all 
changes  wrought  by  the  action  of  acids  or  other  disinte- 
grators of  a  chemical  nature,  while  the  third,  in  its  use 
here,  refers  to  the  changes  brought  about  by  soil  bacteria. 
All  three  of  these  changes,  whether  physical,  chemical  or 
biological,  are  intimately  associated  with  the  presence  of 
humus. 

In  regard  to  the  first,  it  may  be  premised  that  soils 
rich  in  humus  are  not  solid  and  compact,  but  loose,  open 
and  better  aerated  than  those  lacking  humus  and  that 
the  water-holding  capacity  is  materially  increased  by  a 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  271 

fair  admixture  of  humus.  Now,  if  the  ability  of  a  soil  to 
retain  moisture  is  increased  by  the  presence  of  humus, 
it  follows  that  all  plant  food  in  solution  will  be  held  as 
well  and  this  is  an  important  feature. 

Humus  contains  from  three  to  twelve  per  cent  of  ni- 
trogen and  this  in  itself  is  a  fact  worth  bearing  in  mind, 
but  it  has  been  ascertained  besides  that  soils  rich  in 
humus  are  usually  well  supplied  with  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  bacteria 
which  play  such  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of 
plant  food  and  which  are  so  intimately  associated  with 
the  work  of  providing  nitrogen  for  the  use  of  the  trees. 
It  may  be  said  that  but  little  nitrogen  from  those  mate- 
rials in  which  it  is  usually  found  in  or  supplied  to  the  soil 
would  be  available  for  the  trees  were  it  not  for  their 
presence,  and  the  bacterial  content  of  the  soil,  other  con- 
ditions having  been  met,  is  dependent  entirely  upon  the 
presence  of  humus. 

Hence,  it  will  be  seen  that  humus  is  a  very  valuable 
soil  component  and  is  intimately  associated  with  the  life 
activities  of  a  fertile  soil.  Growers  of  citrus  fruits  in 
Florida  use  commercial  fertilizer  in  large  quantities  and 
in  all  districts  the  same  practice  will  have  to  be  followed 
eventually.  Many  of  the  substances  applied  must  under- 
go certain  changes  before  they  can  become  available. 
This  change  from  an  unavailable  to  an  available  state 
is  dependent  either  upon  the  action  of  soil  bacteria  or 
chemical  agents.  Humus  forms  the  media  in  which  the 
bacteria  work  and,  furthermore,  it  holds  the  plant  food 
when  in  solution  until  the  roots  have  a  chance  to  use  it. 
The  best  and  fullest  effects  cannot  be  secured  from  appli- 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  273 

cations  of  fertilizers  to  citrus  trees  unless  the  soil  be 
plentifully  supplied  with  humus. 

DEPTH    OF    CULTIVATION. 

It  is  always  preferable  to  prepare  the  ground  well 
before  the  trees  are  planted.  The  earth  should  be  well 
stirred  and  free  from  roots  and  stumps.  During  the  first 
years  of  the  life  of  the  young  grove,  the  ground  may  be 
plowed,  if  deemed  advisable,  provided  always  that  the 
plow  is  not  run  deep  close  up  to  the  trees.  The  tree  rows 
should  be  cultivated  comparatively  shallow.  This  treat- 
ment Avill  have  a  tendency  to  send  the  roots  deeper  into 
the  soil  as  they  spread  out  from  the  tree.  If  plowing  is 
resorted  to,  the  depth  should  be  varied  from  year  to  year, 
so  that  the  soil  may  not  become  hard  and  compact  at  a 
certain  fixed  depth,  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case  if  the  plow 
is  always  run  at  the  same  distance  from  the  surface. 

Florida.  When  the  trees  have  attained  considerable 
size  and  the  roots  have  occupied  the  whole  space  between 
the  tree  rows,  the  plowing  should  be  very  shallow,  or 
should  be  abandoned  entirely,  the  plow  giving  place  to 
the  cultivator.  The  method  followed  in  the  old  groves 
around  Orange  Lake  was  to  give  three  or  four  hoeings 
during  the  year,  all  the  cultivation  the  trees  received,  and 
results  were  highly  satisfactory.  The  plow  as  an  imple- 
ment for  continuous  cultivation  should  not  be  used.  If 
used  at  all,  plowing  should  be  done  only  during  the  dor- 
mant period,  early  in  spring  or  late  in  autumn.  Its  use 
after  this  time  should  not  be  resorted  to.  Large  numbers 
of  roots  are  broken  or  torn  by  the  plow  as  a  result  of 
which  new  ones  are  formed  rapidly,  food  is  absorbed  in 
great  quantities  and  a  die-back  condition  only  too  fre- 
quently results. 


274  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

In  most  cases,  the  fibrous  feeding  roots  in  old  groves 
form  a  solid  mass  and  these  extend  quite  close  to  the  sur- 
face. In  such  cases  the  cultivation  should  be  shallow, 
but  if  a  proper  system  of  cultivation  has  been  carried  on 
from  the  first,  the  roots  will  not  be  too  close  to  the  surface. 
This  mat  of  roots  is  usually  disturbed  to  some  extent, 
but  considering  the  fact  that  commercial  fertilizers  are 
used  extensively,  it  is  not  good  policy  to  cultivate  deeply 
and  break  them  up  too  much.  Shallow  cultivation  should 
be  the  rule,  a  rule  to  which  there  may,  of  course,  be  ex- 
ceptions. 

California  and  Arizona.  On  the  heavier  soils  of 
California  and  Arizona  the  plow  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage, and,  in  fact,  as  an  implement  of  cultivation,  it  is 
well  nigh  indispensable. 

Irrigation  is  an  essential  part  of  citrus  culture  in 
all  western  districts  and  after  each  irrigation  the  ground 
must  be  cultivated.  Frequently  the  mistake  has  been 
made  of  cultivating  at  exactly  the  same  depth  year  after 
year.  The  result  has  been  the  formation  of  a  hard,  im- 
pervious layer  just  below  the  top  layer  of  cultivated  soil. 
This  layer  of  hard  earth  has  been  termed  "hard-pan," 
"irrigation  hard-pan,"  and  "plow-sole."  Through  it  the 
water  cannot  penetrate.  As  a  result  none  reaches  the 
lower  roots  and  the  trees  suffer. 

To  break  up  this  hard-pan,  the  sub-soil  plow  has  fre- 
quently been  brought  into  operation,  and  while  good  re- 
sults have  followed  in  some  cases,  much  damage  has  been 
done  in  others.  Frequently  the  difficulty  may  be  over- 
come by  slightly  increasing  the  depth  of  cultivation  after 
each  irrigation,  until  the  cultivator  or  plow  finally  makes 
its  way  down  through  the  hard-pan. 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  275 

To  prevent  the  formation  of  this  hard-pan,  the  depth 
of  cultivation  should  be  varied  from  year  to  year.  The 
usual  depth  of  cultivation  is  about  eight  inches.  This 
should  be  increased  from  year  to  year  until  a  depth  of 
thirteen  or  fourteen  inches  is  reached,  then  cultivate  at 
eight  inches  again,  gradually  increasing  to  fourteen,  and 
so  on. 

Frequency  of  Cultivation.  During  the  period  of 
most  active  growth,  the  citrus  plantation  should  be  cul- 
tivated frequently.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  when 
it  is  located  on  damp  soil,  such  as  the  low  hammock  soils 
of  Florida,  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  moisture. 

If  the  weather  is  dry,  the  ground  should  be  culti- 
vated every  week  or  ten  days  to  prevent  the  evaporation 
of  moisture.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  keep  the  culti- 
vator going  all  the  time.  As  soon  as  the  work  is  finished 
on  one  side  of  the  area,  it  should  be  commenced  again 
on  the  opposite.  A  light  harrow  or  weeder  should  be 
used.  If  showers  fall  during  spring,  it  is  a  wise  plan  to 
cultivate  as  soon  as  possible  after  each  one,  that  the  water 
which  has  entered  the  soil  may  be  retained. 

In  the  irrigation  districts  the  soil  should  be  culti- 
vated after  each  application  of  water,  just  as  soon  as  the 
surface  is  dry  enough  to  allow  a  horse  to  walk  over  it. 
Generally  two  or  three  days  must  elapse  before  cultiva- 
tion can  be  started,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the 
soil. 

Weeds  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  grove 
during  the  period  of  cultivation.  They  pump  the  water 
from  the  soil  and  in  a  measure  defeat  the  objects  of  cul- 
tivation. After  cultivation  has  been  discontinued  for  the 
season,  a  cover  crop  should  then  be  given  possession  of 
the  ground. 


276  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Cultivation  in  Relation  to  Irrigation.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  thing  to  be  considered  in  those  districts 
where  irrigation  must  be  carried  on  is  the  relation  be- 
tween cultivation  and  irrigation.  One  of  the  best  dis- 
cussions of  this  phase  of  citrus  culture  is  that  given  by 
J.  W.  Mills  in  Bulletin  No.  138  of  the  California  Experi- 
ment Station,  here  reproduced  in  full: 

"In  order  to  achieve  the  highest  results,  it  becomes 
more  and  more  essential  that  the  grower  shall  keep  the 
soil  in  the  most  perfect  condition,  shall  apply  all  needed 
water  and  plant  food  in  sufficient,  but  not  in  excessive, 
amounts,  and  shall  pay  especial  attention  to  keeping  the 
feeding  roots  as  low  as  practicable,  and  to  preventing 
the  formation  of  what  is  called  'hard-pan/  but  is  only 
the  well-known  'plow-sole/  aggravated  by  shallow  irriga- 
tion. 

"  'Hard-pan/  some  growers  say,  appears  now  where 
it  was  never  known  before.  The  fibrous  roots  of  orange 
trees  run  along  the  surface  and  thus  are  subject  to  every 
vicissitude.  It  often  happens  that  what  orchardists  call 
'hard-pan'  is  only  the  firm  layer  of  soil  caused  by  uniform 
cultivation,  or  plowing,  whether  deep  or  shallow.  The 
depth  to  which  the  soil  is  stirred  should  vary  from  year 
to  year;  eight  inches,  twelve  inches,  ten  inches,  fourteen 
inches,  and  then  eight  inches  again,  would  put  an  end  to 
much  of  the  present  outcry  against  'hard-pan.'  Cultiva- 
tor teeth  should  always  be  kept  sharp  and  should  be 
'set  down'  to  various  depths,  so  as  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  'plow-sole'  of  any  description,  and  to  assist  in 
breaking  up  that  which  former  neglect  has  caused. 

"Very  few  orange  groves  have  been  planted  upon  true 
'hard-pan'  and  if  so  planted  have  seldom  succeeded.  Only 
a  few  trees,  such  as  our  native  oaks,  are  capable  of  thrust- 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  277 

ing  roots  through  the  iron-like  layer  of  natural  sub-soil 
that  is  properly  termed  'hard-pan.'  When  found  to  exist 
it  should  be  deemed  sufficient  to  debar  citrus  culture,  un- 
less so  thin  that  by  boring  or  blasting  the  root  system 
can  be  established  in  good  soil  below  the  'hard-pan/  or 
when  it  is  so  constituted  that  when  kept  irrigated  the 
roots  will  penetrate  it. 

"An  instance  of  the  latter  occurred  at  Kiverside, 
where  Mr.  Keed  planted  a  few  trees  on  a  terrace  border- 
ing on  an  arroyo,  and  found  what  was  reported  as  true 
'hard-pan'  near  the  surface.  The  trees  received  'an  abun- 
dance of  water  over  the  whole  area  for  a  year,'  and  it 
was  then  found  that  the  roots  had  penetrated  it  to  a  con- 
siderable distance. 

"The  term  'irrigation  hard-pan'  is  quite  generally 
used  in  some  orange-growing  districts  to  describe  the 
condition  of  some  small  areas  in  orchards  where  irriga- 
tion and  subsequent  culture  have  been  careless,  or  where 
sufficient  attention  has  not  been  paid  to  the  difference  of 
treatment  required  by  lighter  and  heavier  soils. 

"Of  course,  very  sandy  soils  can  be  handled  sooner 
after  irrigation  than  can  heavier  soils,  and  when  a  sandy 
piece  of  land  containing  areas  of  heavy  soil  is  cultivated 
as  soon  after  irrigation  as  the  sandiest  part  will  permit, 
trouble  may  be  expected  ^with  the  so-called  'irrigation 
hard-pan,'  by  the  puddling  of  the  sub-soil,  partly  directly 
by  the  plow,  partly  by  the  soaking  in  of  clay-water. 

It  is  usual  for  orchardists  to  put  in  a  sub-soil  plow 
to  help  in  breaking  up  the  heavy  spots  of  what  is  called 
'irrigation  hard-pan.'  But  this  difficulty  can  easily  be 
overcome  without  using  a  sub-soil  plow,  as  was  shown  by 
the  experience  of  Mr.  W.  J.  Cox,  of  Glendora,  Los  Ange- 
les County,  who  found  that  'irrigation  hard-pan'  was 


278  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

forming  in  a  part  of  his  orange  grove.  He  irrigated  a 
few  trees  that  were  within  reach  of  the  domestic  water 
supply,  and  followed  this  up  at  the  proper  time  with  thor- 
ough cultivation.  After  each  irrigation  he  cultivated  a 
little  deeper.  As  a  result  of  deep  irrigation  and  cultiva- 
tion, the  soil  took  in  water  as  readily  as  ever  and  the 
trees  regained  their  vigorous  appearance.  He  simply 
used  a  chisel-tooth  cultivator  and  plenty  of  water. 

"A  somewhat  different  case  was  that  of  Mrs.  McKen- 
zie,  of  Riverside,  whose  orange  grove  failed  to  be  profit- 
able, though  apparently  well  irrigated.  This  orchard 
had  been  cultivated  to  the  same  depth  until  a  hard,  clay 
'plow-sole'  had  been  formed.  The  stratum  of  hard  sub-soil 
was  several  inches  thick  and  contained  a  number  of  large 
surface  roots.  She  wrote  to  the  California  Experiment 
Station,  sending  samples  of  soil  for  examination.  It  was 
found  that  the  plow-sole  prevented  the  irrigation  water 
from  reaching  the  deeper  roots,  and  she  was  advised  to 
plow  the  entire  orchard,  roots  and  all,  as  deep  as  the 
plow  would  go.  This  was  done,  much  to  the  alarm  of 
many  growers,  and  great  numbers  of  orange  roots  of  all 
sizes  were  turned  to  the  surface.  Following  further  ad- 
vice, she  irrigated  and  cultivated  the  ground  deeply,  and 
the  following  season  she  harvested  the  largest  crop  ever 
taken  from  this  grove. 

"The  Glendora  grove,  to  which  allusion  has  been 
made,  had  had  deep  cultivation  from  the  beginning,  and 
the  roots  were  mainly  below  the  so-called  hard-pan.  The 
McKenzie  grove  had  many  roots  in  the  hard  'plow-sole,' 
so  that  the  only  remedy  was  to  destroy  these  useless  roots 
and  force  the  growth  of  new  and  deeper  ones,  at  the  same 
time  giving  the  irrigation  water  a  chance  to  penetrate. 
This  rather  drastic  root-pruning  was  necessary,  and  if 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  279 

the  Glendora  grove  had  been  cultivated  to  a  uniform  depth 
a  few  more  seasons,  deeper  plowing  and  the  destruction 
of  the  surface  roots  would  have  become  inevitable  there 
also.  The  breaking  up  of  all  hard  layers  of  soil  caused 
by  improper  cultivation  or  careless  use  of  water  is  of  the 
first  importance  to  the  health  and  profit  of  an  orchard. 

"After  Mrs.  McKenzie's  experience  at  Kiverside,  pre- 
viously mentioned,  sub-soilers  of  different  forms  were 
used,  and  the  idea  soon  became  common  among  growers 
that  the  deeper  a  plow  could  be  run,  the  better  would  be 
the  results  that  would  follow.  The  injurious  results  of 
such  practice  cannot  be  estimated  without  careful  study 
of  the  root  systems  of  orange  trees  on  various  stocks  and 
soils.  A  number  of  bearing  citrus  groves  were  so  much 
injured  by  the  reckless  use  of  sub-soil  plows,  that  the 
leaves  of  the  trees  actually  wilted  down  immediately  after 
the  operation.  In  these  cases,  the  sharp-cutting  plow 
was  run  close  to  and  on  all  sides  of  the  trees.  When  trees 
over  ten  years  of  age,  which  have  been  subjected  to  uni- 
form shallow  plowing  and  irrigation,  are  submitted  to 
such  treatment,  they  probably  lose  at  one  blow  not  less 
than  seventy-five  per  cent  of  their  active  roots.  The  shock 
is  such  that  it  would  take  several  years  of  careful  treat- 
ment to  restore  the  trees. 

"It  is  almost  always  more  economical  to  use  a  sub- 
soiler  or  plow  where  'irrigation  hard-pan'  has  been  formed 
than  it  is  to  use  the  large  amount  of  water  necessary  to 
soften  it;  but  according  to  the  best  practice  the  deepen- 
ing of  cultivation  should  be  gradual,  and  the  implement 
should  never  run  deeper  than  fifteen  inches.  One  must 
remember  that  the  really  serious  loss  in  sudden  deep  culti- 
vation comes  from  the  destruction  of  thousands  of  fibrous 


280  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

roots  that  grow  from  the  hundreds  of  laterals  branching 
from  the  large  main  roots. 

"If  a  plow  is  run  to  a  depth  of  one  foot,  in  three  fur- 
rows, between  the  rows,  and  water  percolates  slowly  for 
a  long  time  through  these  furrows,  no  need  can  arise  for 
a  sub-soiler.  'Irrigation  hard-pan'  within  reach  of  the 
plow  simply  shows,  as  has  been  said,  that  too  shallow 
and  too  uniform  cultivation  has  been  practiced.  In  that 
case  the  entire  surface  should  be  thoroughly  broken  up, 
and  irrigation  in  deep  furrows  after  this  will  restore  the 
proper  conditions. 

"Experience  also  shows  that  when  the  water  is  slowly 
run  in  deep  furrows  for  a  long  time  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  surface  is  kept  dry  and  is  deeply  cultivated,  better 
results  are  obtained  than  when  the  basin  or  block  method 
or  even  the  shallow-furrow  plan  is  used,  even  though  they 
are  followed  by  deep  cultivation.  When  the  water  is 
applied  below  the  first  foot  of  soil,  and  the  soil  above  is 
kept  comparatively  dry,  there  is  nothing  to  attract  the 
roots  to  the  surface;  and  when  the  water  is  thus  applied, 
a  team  can  be  driven  along  the  dry  strips  of  land  between 
the  furrows,  and  with  a  harrow  or  other  appliance  the 
dry  soil  can  be  dragged  into  the  wet  furrows,  to  lessen 
the  evaporation,  immediately  after  the  irrigation  water 
is  turned  oft'.  By  any  other  system  it  is  absolutely  nec- 
essary to  wait  at  least  twelve  hours,  and  sometimes  much 
longer,  before  a  team  can  be  driven  over  the  ground. 
Then,  too,  when  a  soil  irrigated  by  these  more  wasteful 
methods  has  been  cultivated,  it  is  still  moist  near  the  top, 
and  is  soon  filled  with  a  mass  of  new  roots  so  close  to 
the  surface  that  they  must  be  destroyed. 

"Water  applied  to  the  soil  sinks  and  spreads.  Some 
of  it  is  being  taken  up  by  the  still  dry  soil  underneath 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  281 

and  at  the  sides  long  after  the  last  drop  is  visible.  Some 
of  it,  too,  is  being  drawn  back  to  the  surface  and  thence 
evaporated  into  the  warm  air.  Irrigation  after  sundown 
has  some  distinct  advantages,  if  the  water  can  be  handled. 
Sub-irrigation  upon  soils  adapted  to  its  use  is  the  ideal 
system  of  applying  water,  and  greatly  lessens  waste. 
Orange  roots  will  not  enter  a  pipe-line,  unless  it  is  full 
of  water  all  the  time.  If  the  pipe  is  on  a  grade  and  open 
at  bottom  and  top  so  that  air  passes  through  it,  there  will 
never  be  trouble  from  orange  roots.  Valves,  once  thought 
necessary,  are  not  now  used.  The  high  cost  of  the  present 
sub-irrigation  systems  places  them  beyond  the  reach  of 
most  orange  growers." 

Cultivation  in  Relation  to  Dormancy  and  Frosts. 
In  regions  subject  to  frost  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  have  the  trees  in  a  perfectly  dormant  condition  during 
the  period  when  frosts  are  likely  to  occur.  Citrus  trees 
are  notoriously  responsive  to  slight  elevations  of  tem- 
perature during  the  winter  months.  In  a  perfectly  dor- 
mant condition  they  will  withstand  a  considerable  de 
gree  of  cold,  but  if  the  sap  is  moving,  a  very  slight  degree 
of  cold  may  injure  them  seriously. 

Unfortunately,  they  cannot  be  put  in  a  complete  state 
of  dormancy,  to  remain  so  throughout  the  winter  despite 
changes  in  temperature.  Still,  something  may  be  done. 
Fertilizers,  particularly  those  rich  in  nitrogen,  which 
have  a  tendency  to  prolong  the  growth  of  the  tree,  should 
not  be  applied  late  in  the  season.  Cultivation  should 
not  be  continued  late  into  the  fall,  as  the  stirring  of  the 
soil  tends  to  cause  the  trees  to  grow  late  into  the  autumn. 

All  cultivation  should  be  discontinued  early.  Grass 
and  weeds  should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  grove  during  the  winter  months.  If  open  fires  are 


282  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

used  to  protect  the  trees,  the  presence  of  dry  herbage 
among  them  is  a  menace  to  the  safety  of  the  grove.  Fire 
may  easily  spread  through  the  grove  and  the  trees  suffer 
greatly  in  consequence.  Moreover,  it  has  been  observed 
in  Florida,  that  trees  standing  among  dead  grass  and 
weeds  are  much  more  injuriously  affected  by  frost  than 
are  those  in  clean-cultivated  soil.  Hence,  the  best  prac- 
tice is  to  cultivate  sufficiently  to  partially  incorporate  the 
dead  herbage  with  the  soil  about  the  middle  of  November. 

The  Die-Back  Problem.  In  groves  where  trees  are 
affected  by  die-back,  the  trouble  may  be  seriously  aggra- 
vated by  continuance  of  cultivation.  Particularly  is  this 
the  case  where  the  disease  has  been  caused  by  the  use  of 
organic  fertilizers  or  by  too  much  humus  having  been  in- 
corporated with  the  soil.  Where  the  disease  is  caused  by 
the  presence  of  hard-pan  or  by  poor  drainage,  and  not 
by  cultural  mistakes,  the  problem  is,  of  course,  an  entirely 
different  one. 

In  the  former  case,  however,  much  may  be  accom- 
plished by  changing  the  method  of  cultivation  and  ferti- 
lizing. Cultivation  should  be  discontinued,  thereby  re 
stricting  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  lessening  the  amount 
of  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  The  fertilizers  used 
should  contain  no  nitrogen  and  when  fertilizers  are  again 
applied,  organic  sources  of  nitrogen  should  be  rigidly 
avoided.  If  beggarweed  is  growing  in  the  grove,  it  should 
be  cut  frequently  and  removed.  By  this  line  of  treatment 
groves  can  usually  be  brought  back  to  their  normal  con- 
dition. The  question  is  discussed  further  in  the  chapter 
on  Fungous  and  Physiological  Diseases. 

Implements.  The  implements  used  for  cultivating 
must  be  adapted  to  the  soil  conditions  and  in  the  end 
each  grower  should  know  what  will  best  answer  his  pur- 


CULTIVATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  283 

poses.  Various  cultivators  can  be  procured,  adapted  to 
shallow  or  deep  cultivation,  to  light  or  heavy  soils. 

Of  the  implements  used  for  shallow  orchard  cultiva- 
tion, one  of  the  best  is  the  Acme  harrow.  To  this  may  be 
added  a  weeder  and  a  light  harrow.  For  deep  work,  a  disc 
harrow  is  very  useful,  while  a  Planet  Jr.  cultivator  will 
be  found  very  good.  A  cornstalk-smasher  is  frequently 
quite  useful  in  disposing  of  a  heavy  cover  crop. 

General  R&marlts.  Cultivation  should  be  intrusted 
only  to  a  careful  man.  The  Sherwood  harness  should 
be  used,  or,  if  not  possible  to  procure  it,  the  ends  of  the 
whiffletrees  should  be  covered  so  as  to  prevent  injury  to 
the  trunks  of  the  trees.  The  California  whiffletree,  the 
ends  of  which  are  protected  by  the  tugs,  is  made  on  correct 
principles.  Hames  with  tall  iron  tops  should  not  be  used. 
The  hames  should  not  project  above  the  collar. 

Cultivate  thoroughly  and  intelligently,  as  the  condi- 
tions indicate. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 
COVER  CROPS. 

In  the  judicious  management  of  the  citrus  grove,  the 
use  of  a  cover  crop  is  frequently  an  important  factor  and 
one  well  worthy  the  consideration  of  the  producer  of 
citrus  fruits.  Not  all  soils  can  be  treated  in  the  same 
way.  The  soils  are  unlike,  conditions  differ  and  no  one 
should  know  the  peculiarities  of  any  soil  better  than  the 
man  who  tills  it,  who  comes  in  contact  with  it  day  after 
day.  He  should  study  it  carefully,  become  acquainted 
with  all  its  peculiarities  and  then  he  is  in  a  position  to 
handle  it  to  the  best  advantage.  No  other  person  can 
know  so  much  about  a  given  piece  of  land,  as  the  intelli- 
gent man  who  tills  it  and  studies  it  as  he  works.  He,  in 
the  end,  should  be  best  able  to  decide  whether  clean  cul- 
ture throughout  the  year,  clean  culture  with  a  cover  crop 
or  no  culture  is  best  for  his  conditions.  The  amount  of 
fertility  in  the  soil,  the  amount  of  available  moisture,  the 
physical  qualities  of  the  soil  and  the  climate  are  the  more 
or  less  known  quantities  with  which  he  must  work  out 
the  equation  of  citrus  fruit  production.  When  the  differ- 
ent conditions  are  brought  to  mind  it  may  readily  be  seen 
that  no  one  kind  of  treatment  will  be  best  for  all  groves. 

The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  cover  crops 
in  the  citrus  districts  are  in  part  the  same  as  those  which 
obtain  in  more  northern  fruit  regions,  but  the  problem  is, 
in  some  respects  different.  The  advantages,  presented 
briefly  at  this  point,  are  as  follows: 
1.  Affecting  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 


286  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

(a).  Humus  is  added  and  the  water  holding  capac- 
ity of  the  soil  is  increased. 

(b) .  The  soil  is  opened  up,  hard  layers  are  prevented 
from  forming  and  clay  soils  from  becoming  compact. 

(c).  Moisture  is  removed  from  the  soil  during  the 
rainy  season  in  Florida  and  the  Islands. 

(d).     Prevents  surface  washing  in  rainy  season. 
2.     Affecting  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

(a).  Prevents  leaching  of  nitrates  during  the  period 
of  excessive  rainfall. 

(b).     Promotes  nitrification. 

(c).     Adds  plant  food   (leguminous  crops). 

(d).  Breaks  up  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  and  ren- 
ders it  available. 

Cover  crops  are  usually  divided  into  two  classes: 
nitrogen  collectors  and  nitrogen  consumers. 

To  the  first  group  belong  the  leguminous  plants,  such 
as  clover,  cowpeas,  beans,  peas,  beggarweed,  velvet  beans 
vetch,  lupines,  alfalfa  and  many  others. 

Buckwheat,  rye,  oats,  grasses  of  different  kinds,  rape, 
and,  in  short,  all  cover  crop  plants  not  belonging  to  the 
Family  Leguminosae  are  placed  in  the  second  group. 

The  groups  are  based  upon  the  fact  that  upon  the 
roots  of  leguminous  plants,  nodules  of  various  shapes  and 
sizes  are  found.  Two  kinds  of  these  are  shown  in  figures 
67  and  69.  There  are  usually  various  different  shapes  for 
each  species  of  plants,  each  having  its  own  form,  and  they 
vary  considerably  in  size.  They  are  formed  by  the  action 
of  bacteria  which  find  entrance  to  the  roots  through  the 
root-hairs.  These  nodules  are  distinct  in  form,  and  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  irregularly  shaped  swellings 
caused  by  the  action  of  the  root-knot,  producing  nematode 


COVER  CROPS.  287 

worm.,  Heterodera  radicicola,  so  common  in  southern 
regions. 

These  bacteria  are  commonly  known  as  nitrogen 
fixers,  because  of  their  ability  to  collect  and  store  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  air  in  the  tubercles  formed  by  their  action. 
This  nitrogen  eventually  becomes  available  to  the  plants 
growing  on  the  soil.  The  tubercles  are  most  in  evidence 
during  the  earlier  period  of  growth  of  the  legumes.  The 
greater  number  of  them  decay  and  become  shrunken  later 
in  the  season,  their  nitrogen  contents  having  been  taken 
up  by  the  plants. 

Rye,  oats,  crab-grass,  sand-spurs  and  other  grass 
plants  do  not  collect  nitrogen,  but  when  returned  to  the 
soil,  give  back  only  that  which  they  have  withdrawn. 
However,  they  add  fibre  to  the  soil,  increasing  the  humus 
content  and  have  a  general  ameliorating  effect. 

The  benefits  derived  from  cover  crops  may  be  ren- 
dered entirely  negative,  unless  proper  care  is  exercised  in 
handling  them.  In  the  hot  climate  of  the  citrus  districts, 
they  should  not  be  plowed  under  while  green,  but  should 
be  allowed  to  become  dry  and  partially  rotted  before  being 
incorporated  with  the  soil.  Unless  this  plan  be  followed, 
an  acid  condition  of  the  soil,  inimical  to  the  growth  of 
citrus  or  any  other  fruit  trees,  may  result.  When  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  used,  the  potash  content  should  be 
increased  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  returned 
by  the  cover  crop  and  only  pure  chemical  fertilizers  should 
be  applied.  None  containing  organic  source  of  nitrogen 
should  be  used,  else  in  many  localities,  die-back  will  but 
too  frequently  result. 

VALUABLE    COVER-CROP    PLANTS    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

The  legumes  most  serviceable  as  cover  crops  in  Flor- 
ida are  Beggarweed  (Desmodium  tortuosum  DC.)  and 


288 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Fig.  67.     Velvet  bean  pods,  two-Hfths  natural 
size,  and  a  nitrogen  nodule,  natural  size. 


Velvet  Bean  (Mucuna  utilis  Wal- 
lich) .  The  former  is  a  well-known 
native  plant,  while  the  latter  was 
introduced  into  America,  presum- 
ably about  1869.  The  Cowpeas 
(Vigna  catjang)  are  also  some- 
times grown,  but  the  presence  of 
the  nematode  worm,  already  re- 
ferred to,  so  frequently  interferes 
with  their  growth  that  it  cannot 
be  recommended  for  all  soils.  So 
far  as  known  this  nematode  does 
not  attack  orange  roots,  but  it  is 
frequently  present  in  the  soil  in 
the  roots  of  native  plants. 

It  is  generally  necessary  to  get 
rid  of  the  cover  crop  before  the 
picking  season.  This  may  be  done 
by  cutting  it  and  allowing  it  to  lie 
on  the  surface  until  it  decays  par- 
tially, or  it  may 
be  harrowed  in- 
to the  soil  if 
dead  and  dry. 

I.       VELVET   BEAN 

(MUCUNA 
UTILIS). 

The  velvet 
bean  makes 
a  n  enormous 
growth,  and,  in 
autumn,  after 
being 


COVER  CROPS. 


289 


touched  by  frost  in  Northern  Florida,  several  inches  in 
depth  of  dead  leaves  and  vines  cover  the  ground.  No  other 
legume  will  make  such  a  growth  in  the  same  length  of 
time.  In  the  full  vigor  of  its  growth  it  covers  the  ground 
to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  with  a  tangled  mass  of 
vines,  individuals  of  which  are  frequently  upwards  of 
seventy-five  feet  long.  Miller  has  estimated  the  amount  of 
green  material  on  an  acre  to  be  21,132  pounds,  or  5,953 
pounds  of  dry  substance.  As  a  cover  crop  it  is  difficult  to 
handle  in  regions  remote  from  frost,  as  it  continues  grow- 
ing and  the  plants  in  a  green  state  are  difficult  to  handle. 
It  can,  however,  be  cut  with  a  mowing  machine  and  drawn 
aside  between  the  tree  rows,  if  still  green  in  the  autumn, 
for  it  is  generally  advisable  to  get  the  cover  crop  out 
of  the  way  before  the  picking  season  approaches. 

Nitrogen  is  collected  in  very  large  amounts  by  this 
cover  crop.  The  following  table  is  given  by  Prof.  H.  K. 
Miller  in  Bui.  60  of  the  Florida  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  shows  the  results  obtained  by  the  Ala- 
bama, Louisiana  and  Florida  Experiment  Stations  with 
velvet  beans  as  a  field  crop: 


•••-—  ™~;~ 

ALABAMA 

LOUISIANA 

FLORIDA 

Weight  of  green  material  from  an  acre  

19  040 

22,919 

21,132 

Weight  of  dried  material  from  an  acre  

8,240 

7,495 

5,953 

Weitrht  of  dried  roots  from  an  acre   

1,258 

191 

690 

Weight  of  nitrogen  in  vines  from  an  acre  
Weight  of  nitrogen  in  roots  from  an  acre  
Total  nitrogen  in  crop  from  one  acre  

201.3 
12.6 
213»9 

• 

170 
2.9 
172.9 

131.5 
9.7 
141.2 

Such  results  could  not  be  obtained  in  the  citrus 
grove,  as  the  whole  space  cannot  be  planted,  but  one 
hundred  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre  would  probably  be 
a  conservative  estimate. 


1 1 


290  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  root  system  spreads  out  well  from  the  plant  and 
the  roots  penetrate  the  soil  deeply.  The  tubercles  formed 
by  the  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  are  very  large,  frequently 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  or  more  in  diameter,  black  or 
brownish  black,  and  covered  with  projections.  (Fig.  67). 

The  seed  should  be  sown  not  later  than  the  end  of 
May  and  earlier  if  possible.  The  crop  is  benefited  by  cul- 
tivation, as  it  is  somewhat  slow  in  starting  and  the  weeds 
should  be  kept  down  until  it  is  well  established.  Cultiva- 
tion may  be  continued  for  three  or  four  weeks  after  plant- 
ing. While  the  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast,  it  is  better 
to  sow  in  drills,  four  or  five  feet  apart,  or  in  hills,  three 
or  four  beans  to  the  hill  in  checks  four  or  five  feet  square. 
One  bushel  is  sufficient  seed  for  four  acres.  They  should  not 
be  planted  closer  to  the  tree  row  than  six  or  eight  feet  and 
care  must  be  exercised  to  turn  the  vines  away  from  the 
trees,  else  they  may  cover  and  smother  them.  This  has 
happened  in  the  groves  of  careless  cultivators. 

Baron  H.  von  Luttichau,  of  Earleton,  has  been  very 
successful  with  velvet  beans  as  a  cover  crop.  His  method 
of  handling  it,  as  given  in  his  own  words  in  Bui.  69,  Flor- 
ida Experiment  Station,  is  well  worth  reproducing  here: 

"Since  our  first  big  freeze,  when  all  the  trees  went, 
I  handle  my  groves  in  a  different  way  from  w^hat  I  had 
up  until  that  time.  The  velvet  bean  was  introduced  and 
with  that,  the  change.  Until  then  my  groves  were  worked 
and  fertilized  according  to  established  rules. 

"Last  wTeek  in  January,  or  thereabouts,  before  the 
bloom  and  growth  starts,  the  plow  is  run,  very  shallow, 
straight  along  six  feet  away  from  the  tree  rows.  The 
strip  between  the  trees  is  left,  never  being  disturbed, 
either  by  plow  or  hoe.  Nothing  further  is  done  until 
about  March  1st,  when  all  the  rest  of  the  land  and  the  old 


COVER  CROPS.  291 

stubble  of  last  year  is  planted  as  thick  as  possible  with 
velvet  beans.  The  vines  receive  one  working  with  a  plow, 
no  hoeing.  They  grow,  covering  everything  with  a  dense 
mass  of  vines  and  a  layer  of  rotten  leaves.  An  Acme  cul- 
tivator is  run  along  the  six  feet  of  plowed  ground  as  long 
as  the  vines  will  permit.  Nothing  more  is  done,  except  to 
keep  the  vines  from  the  trees,  and  the  trees  are  never 
plowed.  When  the  cold  kills  the  vines,  they  are  drawn 
into  piles  with  the  horse-rake,  and  later  they  are  placed 
around  the  trees  and  on  the  strip  between.  No  beans  are 
picked,  except  enough  for  seed.  The  trees  are  banked  by 
December  1st.  No  other  fertilizer  than  the  velvet  beans 
has  been  used  now  for  six  years  or  more.  Date  of  writ- 
ing, all  trees  look  luxuriant,  covered  with  new  growth 
and  extra  heavy  bloom.  Last  fruit  was  perfect,  pro- 
nounced by  Mr.  Arnold,  of  Jacksonville,  who  bought  it 
all  on  the  trees,  as  being  the  best  he  had  ever  handled. 
I  will  not  claim  that  I  shall  never  have  to  use  any  other 
fertilizer,  but  thus  far  there  is  no  indication  of  the  need 
of  it.  Expenses  per  year  are  about  $25.00,  except  cost 
of  banking  and  removing  same." 

Some  growers  have  objected  to  the  velvet  bean  as 
a  cover  crop  because  it  harbors  insects,  particularly  the 
soldier  bug,  cotton  stainer  and  allied  insects.  These,  when 
the  crop  is  removed  or  dies  down,  transfer  their  attentions 
to  the  fruit  on  the  trees,  to  the  consternation  of  the 
grower,  and  much  damage  is  sometimes  done.  But  these 
insects  are  more  or  less  periodic  and  rarely,  if  ever, 
attack  a  grove  year  after  year  in  numbers  large  enough 
to  prove  injurious.  Whether  the  velvet  bean  is  more 
likely  to  attract  them  than  any  other  crop  is  also  some- 
what problematical. 


292  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

BEGGARWKED.       (DESMODIUM    TORTUOSUM.) 


Beggar  weed  is  a 
strong,  erect,  an- 
nual plant.  It  is 
a  native  of  Florida 
and  is  perfectly  at 
home  in  all  parts 
of  the  State. 
When  standing 
apart,  unshaded 
by  other  plants,  it 
is  much  branched, 
but  closely  plant- 
ed, it  produces  a 
single  stem  with- 
out branches.  In 
soils  where  plenty 
of  tubercles  are 
formed,  it  fre- 
quently grows  to 

Fig.  68.    Seed   stem  and   flowering-  stem   of          ,     .    ,  ,       „ 

Beggarweed.  a   height   °f   S1X   Or 

eight  feet,  the  stem 

being  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick  at  the  ground. 
At  the  end  of  the  season  a  goodly  covering  of  par- 
tially decayed  foliage  is  found  on  the  ground.  As  a 
cover  crop,  it  is  easily  managed.  On  many  soils  it  should 
not  be  allowed  to  grow  throughout  the  whole  season  un- 
checked, as  the  stems  become  hard,  woody  and  difficult  to 
incorporate  with  the  soil.  The  crop  should  be  cut  once 
or  twice  during  the  season  and  if  a  good  length  of  stub- 
ble be  left,  it  will  stool  out,  producing  another  crop. 
Each  cutting  may  be  allowed  to  decay  on  the  surface,  or 


COVER  CROPS.  293 

one  or  two  may  be  removed  for  hay,  though  by  this  plan 
the  full  benefit  of  the  crop  cannot  be  secured.  The  last 
cutting  should  not  be  so  late  as  to  prevent  seed  forma- 
tion, for  if  once  well  established,  the  crop  will  reseed  itself 
year  after  year,  if  well  managed. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  collected,  up  to  the  time  of 
the  formation  of  flower  buds,  is  shown  by  the  following 
unpublished  analysis  made  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Blair,  of  the 
Department  of  Chemistry,  in  the  University  of  Florida: 

Weight  in  pounds  of  dried  stems  and  leaves  per  acre  3,489.15 

Weight  in  pounds  of  dried  roots  per  acre 105.85 

Weight  of  nitrogen  per  acre  in  stems  and  leaves 90.71 

Weight  of  nitrogen  per  acre  in  roots 10.02 

Total  nitrogen  in  roots,  stems  and  leaves  per  acre...  100.73 

But  a  single  cutting  is  represented  in  the  above  analy- 
ses. If  allowed  to  grow  throughout  the  whole  summer, 
or  if  cut  once  or  twice  and  the  crop  allowed  to  return  to 
the  soil,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  collected  during  the 
entire  season  would  probably  be  increased  one-half. 

A  straight,  strong  tap-root  with  numerous  laterals 
is  produced.  These  penetrate  well  into  the  soil,  loosen- 
ing and  opening  it  to  a  depth  of  twelve  to  fifteen  inches, 
or  even  more.  The  nodules  are  comparatively  small, 
rounded,  smooth,  and  under  favorable  conditions,  pro- 
duced abundantly.  Figure  69  shows  the  nodules  natu- 
ral size  and  also  gives  a  fair  idea  of  how  plentifully  they 
are  formed  on  the  roots. 

From  five  to  ten  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre, 
but,  as  already  noted,  when  once  seeded,  sowing  is  not 
necessary  for  the  next  season.  The  seed  should  be  scattered 
broadcast  on  freshly  harrowed  ground,  and  a  second  har- 
rowing then  given.  If  it  is  deemed  necessary  to 


294 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


continue  cultivation  after 
sowing  the  seed,  it  may  be 
done  for  a  time,  but  this  will 
have  to  be  confined  to  the 
tree  rows  eventually,  culti- 
vating one  way  only,  and  al- 
lowing the  beggarweed  free 
possession  of  the  middles. 
After  having  become  well 
established,  so  as  to  produce 
plenty  of  seed,  cultivation 
may  be  carried  on  over  the 
whole  surface  from  early 
spring  to  about  the  middle  of 
June,  after  which  the  plants 
will  spring  up  and  cover  the 
ground. 

This  cover  crop  can  easily 


B 


;1 


Fig1.   69.     A,  nodules  on  Beggarweed  roots    natural  size. 

R.  root  system    of   Beggarweed,    with    an    abundance    of 

nitrogen   nodules. 


COVER  CROPS.  295 

be  disposed  of  in  autumn  by  cutting  with  a  mower 
and  allowing  it  to  remain  on  the  surface  until 
it  becomes  dry  and  brittle,  when  it  may  be  worked 
into  the  soil.  If  it  has  not  been  cut  during  the 
summer  and  has  become  dry  while  still  standing,  it  may 
be  broken  down  with  a  corn  stalk  smasher.  This  followed 
by  a  cutaway  harrow  will  incorporate  it  fairly  well  with 
the  soil. 

If,  for  any  reason,  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  get  rid 
of  the  beggar  weed  in  a  grove,  it  may  be  done  by  cutting 
frequently  to  prevent  seeding  and  by  prolonging  spring 
cultivation  well  into  the  rainy  season,  when  the  rapid 
growth  of  crab-grass  and  other  native  plants  will  choke 
it  out. 

OTHER    COVER    CROPS. 

A  crop  of  sand-spurs,  crab-grass  and  other  plants 
may  also  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  grove  after  cultiva- 
tion ceases.  This  plan  is  adopted  by  some  Florida  grow- 
ers who  prefer  to  apply  the  nitrogen  required,  instead  of 
depending  upon  a  leguminous  cover  crop  for  the  supply. 
Seeding  for  these  crops  is  not  necessary  as  they  spring  up 
spontaneously.  Some  people  object  to  these  plants  as 
cover  crops,  but  better  by  far  to  have  them  than  to  have 
bare,  exposed  ground. 

COVER    CROPS    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

In  California  and  Arizona,  where  recourse  has  to 
be  made  to  irrigation  to  keep  up  the  water  supply,  the 
growing  of  cover  crops  does  not  receive  the  same  atten- 
tion as  it  does  in  the  eastern  sections.  Whether  they  are 
planted  or  not  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of  water 
available.  If  a  supply  sufficient  for  both  cover  crop  and 


293  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

trees  can  be  had,  then  the  latter  may  be  grown  between 
the  tree  rows.  If  a  plant  could  be  secured  which  would 
make  a  good  growth  during  the  winter  season  and  which 
could  readily  be  disposed  of  in  spring,  so  as  to  permit 
of  frequent  cultivation  during  the  dry  summer  months, 
it  would  be  very  desirable.  Unfortunately,  it  is  too  dry, 
early  in  autumn,  to  start  a  crop  satisfactorily  without 
recourse  to  irrigation,  and  heavy  applications  of  water 
at  this  season  are  not  best  for  the  trees.  The  Canada 
field  pea,  Bur  clover  and  lupines  have  received  the  most 
attention.  Fortunately  the  more  retentive  nature  of  the 
California  soils  and  their  greater  store  of  fertility  has 
not  as  yet  rendered  the  growing  of  a  cover  crop  of  so 
much  importance  as  it  is  in  Florida. 

In  some  cases,  however,  the  soils  are  becoming  de- 
pleted, and  the  day  is  not  far  distant,  in  fact  has  already 
come  in  some  instances,  when  the  cover  crop  question 
will  be  one  of  great  moment  to  the  growers  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast.  Clean  culture  cannot  produce  good  results 
indefinitely  and  the  sooner  cover  crops  are  given  attention, 
the  better  for  the  future  of  the  citrus  industry. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 

FERTILIZERS  AND  FERTILIZING. 

The  problems  connected  with  the  supplying  of  the 
proper  food  materials  to  citrus  trees  are  extremely  im- 
portant. Fertilizers  in  some  form  must  be  used  sooner 
or  later  in  all  citrus  districts,  for  no  soil  is  inexhausti- 
ble. In  many  sections,  however,  they  must  be  used  even, 
from  the  planting  of  the  trees.  In  Florida,  where  the 
soils  are  very  deficient  in  plant  food,  the  kinds,  quanti- 
ties of  materials,  and  the  time  of  their  application  con- 
stitutes the  great  problem  of  citrus  culture.  In  Califor- 
nia the  most  important  problems  connected  with  citrus 
fruit  growing  are  not  those  which  have  to  do  with  the 
use  of  fertilizers,  but  with  the  best  methods  of  irriga- 
tion and  cultivation  instead.  As  pointed  out  elsewhere, 
the  soils  of  California  and  the  arid  region  generally,  are 
extremely  rich  when  compared  with  those  of  Florida, 
and  in  some  places  the  need  of  fertilizers  has  not  yet 
been  evidenced.  Most  growers  in  the  western  districts, 
however,  already  realize  the  importance  of  keeping  up 
the  fertility  of  the  land  and  make  regular  applications 
of  fertilizers.  The  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
crops  of  fruit  cannot  be  harvested  year  after  year  from 
a  given  area  without  depleting  the  soil,  decreasing  the 
quantity  and  impairing  the  quality  of  the  output,  unless 
some  return  be  made  to  the  soil  to  replace  the  plant  food 
removed.  The  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition 
of  plants  are  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  potas- 
sium, calcium,  magnesium,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  iron 
and  sometimes  chlorine,  but  of  those  obtained  from  the 


298 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


soil,  all  except  phosphorus,  potash,  nitrogen  and  some- 
times lime,  are  usually  present  in  sufficient  quantities  for 
the  needs  of  the  trees.  In  some  soils,  even  these  four  may 
be  present  in  the  virgin  soil  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
last  some  time,  but  they  become  exhausted  after  a  few 
years  cropping. 

The  following  analyses  show  the  amounts  of  the 
three  more  important  fertilizer  ingredients  removed  in 
the  fruit  of  pomelos,  mandarin  oranges  and  kumquats  in 
Florida,  as  determined  by  Professors  Miller  and  Blair, 
of  the  Department  of  Chemistry  of  the  University  of 
Florida,  and  of  sweet  oranges  and  Eureka  lemon  as  com- 
puted from  the  data  given  by  Mr.  Hubert  L.  Dyer  in  Bul- 
letin 93,  University  of  California,  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station: 


FERTILIZER    ANALYSES    OF    THE    FRUIT    OF    SIX    VARIETIES 
OF    POMELOS. 

[From  Bui.  58,  Fla.  Exp.  Station.] 


VARIETY 

P805 
per  cent. 

K2O 

per  cent. 

N 
per  cent. 

Royal 

040 

250 

119 

Pernambuco  
Manville  
Aurantium  
Walters    
Triumph  .  . 

.056 
.054 
.053 
.049 
.050 

.213 
.251 
.239 
.233 
.237 

.111 
.102 
.085 
.129 
.117 

Average  

.050 

.237 

.110 

FERTILIZERS   AND   FERTILIZING. 


299 


FERTILIZER    ANALYSES    OF    THE    FRUIT    OF    SIX   VARIETIES 
OF    MANDARIN    ORANGES. 

[From  Bui.  6fi,  Fla.  Ag.  Exp.  Station.] 


VARIETY 

P8O5  to- 
tal per  ct. 

K2Otot'l 
per  cent. 

N  total 
per  cent. 

Satsuma 

0386 

2121 

1661 

China  .             
Dancy  

.0758 
.0591 

.2576 
.1903 

.1404 
.1500 

Oneco  --.-••-  
Cleopatra  ".  
King  

.0573 
.0529 
.0531 

.2732 
.3199 
.2791 

.1653 
.1639 
.1506 

Average  ...  V/rT 

.0561 

2570 

.1560 

FERTILIZER    ANALSES    OF    THE    FRUIT    OF    TWO    VARIETIES 
OF    KUMQUATS. 

[From  Bui    65,  Fla.  Ag.  Exp.  Station.] 


VARIETY 

P205 
per  cent. 

K2O 
per  cent. 

N 
per  cent. 

Marumi 

0528 

2623 

114 

Nagami  

.0531 

.2796 

.132 

Average. 

0529 

2709 

136 

FERTILIZER  ANALYSES   OF  THE   FRUIT   OF  FIVE  VARIETIES 
OF    SWEET    ORANGES. 

[Computed  from  Bui.  93,  Univ.  Col.  Ag.  Exp.  Station.] 


VARIETY 

P806 
per  cent. 

K80 

per  cen 

N 
per  cent. 

Navel  Oranges 

051 

215 

211 

Med.  Sweet 

065 

225 

154 

St.  Michael's  
Malta  Blood  

.053 

.062 

.216 
.221 

.228 
.168 

Average  

.058 

.219 

.190 

300  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

FERTILIZER  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  FRUIT  OF  ONE  VARIETY  OF  LEMON. 
[Computed  from  Bui.  93.  Univ.  Cal.  Ag.  Exp.  Station.] 


VARIETY 

P2O5          K2O 
per  cent,  per  cent. 

N 
per  cent. 

Eureka 

058             253 

151 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  analyses  that  the  fruit  of 
all  kinds  of  citrus  contain  practically  the  same  percent- 
age of  fertilizer  ingredients.  The  averages  of  the  five 
tables  given  above  are  .055  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid, 
.249  per  cent,  potash  and  .149  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

For  purposes  of  computation  it  may  be  assumed 
that  a  box  of  citrus  fruit  will  weigh  about  eighty  pounds. 
No  fixed  and  definite  weight  can  be  given.  Much  de- 
pends upon  the  size  of  the  fruit,  the  season,  the  curing, 
and  the  methods  of  cultivation,  irrigation  and  fertili- 
zation. The  weights  may  vary  anywhere  between  sixty- 
five  and  one  hundred  pounds,  but  the  weight  fixed  upon, 
viz.,  80  pounds,  will  not  be  far  from  a  general  average. 
The  weight  of  ten  boxes  would  then  be  800  pounds.  This 
amount  of  fruit  would  remove  from  the  soil  .440  pounds 
phosphoric  acid,  1.976  pounds  of  potash  and  1.192  pounds 
of  nitrogen. 

That  soil  depletion  may  be  prevented,  these  are  the 
losses  which  must  be  made  good  for  each  crop  of  ten 
boxes.  In  addition,  provision  should  be  made  for  a  var- 
iable and  unknown  quantity  of  plant  food  which  leaches 
from  the  soil  and  besides,  the  tree  must  have  a  sufficient 
food  supply  to  enable  it  to  add  new  growth  in  roots, 
branch  and  leaf.  A  fair  approximation,  covering  the 
fertilizer  removed  in  the  fruit  and  that  lost  by  leaching 
and  required  for  new  growth  would  be  two  or  three  times 


FERTILIZERS  AND  FERTILIZING.  301 

the  amount  estimated  for  every  ten  boxes  of  fruit.  Fer- 
tilizing is  a  more  or  less  local  matter,  one  which  it  is 
well  nigh  impossible  to  reduce  to  a  matter  of  absolute 
facts  and  figures,  and  each  grower  must  determine  for 
himself  how  much  his  trees  require  and  how  much  it  is 
economical  to  use.  It  has  generally  been  observed  in 
Florida,  where  commercial  fertilizers  are  largely  used, 
that  the  grower  who  fertilizes  liberally  with  the  proper 
material  generally  meets  with  the  best  success.  This,  per- 
haps, is  not  only  the  result  of  the  additional  fertilizer 
applied,  but  because  a  liberal  policy  along  this  line  leads 
him  to  give  greater  attention  to  all  details  connected 
with  the  care  of  the  trees.  A  citrus  tree  may  get  along 
after  a  fashion  and  give  some  returns  with  poor  treat- 
ment. It  may  live  and  eke  out  a  miserable  existence  when 
abused  and  neglected,  but  in  all  cases  it  amply  repays 
good  care  and  attention  and  will  not  be  profitable  unless 
it  is  given. 

THE  FUNCTIONS   OF  PHOSPHORIC  ACID,   POTASH,   NITROGEN 

AND    LIME. 

Phosphoric  Add.  This  substance  is  a  very  essen- 
tial one  and  plays  an  important  part  in  the  life  activi- 
ties of  plants.  It  enters  into  the  formation  and  is  a  con- 
stituent of  a  certain  class  of  nitrogenous  compounds 
known  as  proteids.  Phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  consid- 
erable amounts  in  the  different  parts  of  the  fruit  of  citrus 
trees,  but  the  seeds  contain  the  highest  percentage.  The 
fresh  rind  of  pomelos  contains  .035  per  cent.;  the  pulp 
.044  per  cent. ;  and  the  seeds  .315  per  cent,  and  these  per- 
centages may  be  regarded  as  close  approximations  for  all 
citrus  fruits.  Unless  the  requisite  amount  of  phosphoric 
acid  be  available,  the  fruit  does  not  develop  normally, 


302  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

and  the  maturity  of  the  fruit  is  somewhat  hastened  by 
heavy  applications  of  this  material,  unless  offset  by  an 
abundant  supply  of  nitrogen. 

Potash.  In  the  formation  of  starch,  sugar,  fruit  and 
woody  parts  of  the  tree,  potash  plays  an  active  part.  By 
photosynthesis,  starch  is  formed  in  the  leaves,  as  a  solid 
substance.  Before  it  can  be  transferred  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  plant,  it  must  be  dissolved.  Potash  assists 
in  this  process,  thus  enabling  the  starch  to  pass  through 
the  cell  walls  of  the  plant.  Sugar  is  probably  formed 
from  starch  and  various  other  related  compounds  in  the 
plant  which  enter  so  largely  into  the  composition  of  the 
wood  and  fruit  are  probably  derived  from  the  same 
source.  The  great  importance  of  a  goodly  supply  of  pot- 
ash can  thus  be  easily  understood. 

If  large  amounts  of  potash  are  taken  up  by  the  trees 
it  will  be  found  that  the  rind  of  the  fruit  will  be  much 
thinner  than  otherwise  and  the  amount  of  rag  will  be 
greatly  lessened.  A  plentiful  supply  of  potash  in  the 
fruit  has  an  excellent  influence  on  its  keeping  quality. 
If  too  little  be  present,  the  fruit  will  be  soft  and  is  likely 
to  break  down  shortly  after  removal  from  the  trees.  To 
increase  the  keeping  and  carrying  quality  of  citrus  fruits 
a  large  amount  of  potash  with  a  small  amount  of  nitro- 
gen should  be  used.  The  influence  of  potash  on  the  hard- 
ening of  the  wood  is  worthy  of  note.  Trees  plentifully 
supplied  with  potash  are  more  likely  to  form  firm,  hard 
wood,  less  liable  to  damage  by  cold  and  the  attacks  of 
insects  than  if  a  preponderance  of  nitrogen  be  applied. 

Nitrogen.  The  effects  of  an  abundant  supply  of  ni- 
trogen are  much  more  apparent  than  the  effects  of  an  excess 
of  either  potash  or  phosphoric  acid.  When  the  leaves  have  a 
dark  green,  glossy  color  they  are  receiving  plenty  of  nitro- 


FERTILIZERS   A.ND   FERTILIZING.  3()3 

genous  food.  The  effects  are  further  shown  in  the  increased 
area  of  individual  leaves,  strong,  vigorous,  sappy  growth 
and  long  internodes.  Very  large  amounts  of  nitrogen 
impair  the  fruitfulness  of  the  tree,  wood  formation  tak- 
ing place  at  the  expense  of  fruit.  It  has  a  tendency  to 
retard  the  maturity  of  the  fruit  and  large  amounts  ma- 
terially increase  the  amount  of  rag  and  the  thickness  of 
the  rind. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  nitrogen  supply  is  not 
sufficient,  the  leaves  become  yellow,  the  trees  have  a 
stunted,  starved  appearance  and  do  not  make  a  normal 
growth  of  branch  and  leaf. 

Lime.  The  value  of  lime  as  a  fertilizer  may  be  viewed 
from  two  points :  its  effect  upon  the  soil  and  its  effect 
upon  the  plant.  Both  of  these  have  a  direct  bearing  on 
the  subject  under  discussion. 

Much  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  depends  upon  the 
number  and  activity  of  soil  bacteria.  These  liberate  plant 
food  and  make  it  available  so  that  the  roots  of  trees  and 
other  plants  may  take  it  up.  Soils,  especially  in  warm 
climates,  have  a  tendency  to  become  acid  and  under  such 
conditions  the  bacteria  cannot  live.  The  presence  of 
lime  counteracts  the  acid  condition  and  it  should  be  ap- 
plied whenever  necessary.  Furthermore,  it  helps  to  bring 
about  the  decomposition  of  humus  and  liberates  the  ni- 
trogen which  it  contains.  Large  amounts  of  plant  food 
may  be  liberated  by  or  through  the  use  of  lime,  hence,  in 
applying  it  to  citrus  groves  it  is  best  to  use  it  sparingly 
or,  at  the  time  of  its  use,  discontinue  the  nitrogenous 
fertilizer  and  depend  upon  the  amount  of  nitrogen  lib- 
erated to  make  up  the  deficit. 

In  the  plant,  the  presence  of  lime  appears  to  favor  the 
formation  of  stronger  cell  walls  and  thus  aids  in  mak- 


304  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

ing  the  trees  stronger  and  more  sturdy.  Citrus  trees  planted 
on  soils  fairly  well  supplied  with  lime  have  a  tendency 
to  mature  their  fruit  somewhat  earlier  and  the  fruit 
is  bright  and  clean. 

Sources  of  Plant  Food.   The  most  noteworthy  sources 
from  which  the  required  fertilizing  elements  may  be  se- 
cured are  barnyard  manure  and  commercial   fertilizers. 
k         A  good  quality  of  the  former,  when  well  rotted,  will  con- 
f"~~tain  about  .C^  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid^  .Qfi  per  cent.  o 
I         potash  and  .Qj6  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  while  the  latter  may^ 
be  of  almost  any  conceivable  composition. 

The  use  of  stable  manure  as  a  fertilizer  for  citrus 
trees  in  California  has  been  followed  by  satisfactory  re- 
sults, but  in  Florida,  its  use  has  too  frequently  been  fol- 
lowed by  attacks  of  die-back  and  by  other  troubles. 
Whether  this  be  true  in  all  cases  or  not,  in  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  instances  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  use 
of  stable  manure  are  doubtful.  It  is  essentially  a  nitro- 
genous fertilizer,  and,_whenever  used,  should  be  accom- 
panied  byheavy  applications  of  potash,  unless  thp  soil  . 
is  already  rich  in  this  substance.  Potash  is  notoriously 
deficient  in  Florida  soils.  An  additional  supply  of  phos- 
phoric acid  may  also  be  needed.  The  greatest  difficulty 
encountered  in  the  use  of  stable  manure  is  that  people 
generally  fail  to  realize  that  it  is,  at  best,  a  one-sided 
fertilizer. 

Sources  of  Pfeogjifonffo  Aftf(fl,.  ,  The  principal  sources 
of  phosphoric  acid  are  bone  and  phosphatic  rock.  The 
bone  is  sold  either  as  ground  bone,  steamed  bone  or  dis- 
solved bone.  The  other  as  super-phosphate  (acid  phos- 
phate) and  double  super-phosphate.  Ground  bone  contains 
about  22  to  26  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid.  Steamed  bone 
about  the  same;  dissolved  bone,  16  to  19  per  cent.; 


FERTILIZERS  AND  FERTILIZING.  3Q5 

super-phosphate,  13  to  15  per  cent,  available;  a 
high-grade  super-phosphate,  16  to  19  per  cent,  available; 
and  double  super-phosphate,  45  to  57  per  cent,  available. 

The  readiness  with  which  the  phosphoric  acid  may 
be  obtained  from  bone  depends  largely  upon  the  fineness 
of  division  of  the  particles.  The  finer  it  is  ground,  the 
more  readily  the  roots  of  the  tree  can  take  it  up.  It  must 
undergo  decomposition  before  yielding  up  its  phosphoric 
acid  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  well  to  use  it  where 
quick  results  are  desired.  It  is  an  excellent  substance 
to  use  to  increase  the  phosphoric  acid  content  of  the  soil, 
supplying  a  store  from  which  the  tree  may  draw  gradually. 
Its  use  is  strongly  recommended  at  the  time  of  planting 
citrus  trees.  A  pound  or  two  incorporated  with  the  soil 
before  placing  it  about  the  roots,  is  an  excellent  practice. 

For  general  use  in  citrus  fertilizers,  dissolved  bone 
is  the  best  of  the  materials  derived  from  bone  to  use. 
contains,  as  already  noted,  from  16  to  19  per  cent.  o1 
available  phosphoric  acid. 

Phosphoric  acid  fertilizers  derived  from  phosphate 
rock  are  of  two  kinds :  super-phosphate,  known  to  the 
trade  as  acid  phosphate  or  high-grade  acid  phosphate 
and  double  super-phosphate.  The  latter  is  not 
used  to  any  great  extent.  It  has  been  claimed 
that  it  is  best  to  use  dissolved  bone  as  a  source 
of  phosphoric  acid,  and  yet  acid  phosphate  has  been  used 
in  some  groves  in  Florida  continually  for  ten  or  fifteen 
years  with  uniformly  satisfactory  results.  Each  year 
the  crops  have  been  all  that  could  be  desired. 

In  the  face  of  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  either 
dissolved  bone  or  acid  phosphate,  we  are  probably  safe 
in  saying  that  one  is  as  good  as  the  other  as  a  source  of 
phosphoric  acid. 


FERTILIZERS  AND  FERTILIZING.  .    3QJ 

Sources  of  PotaslL  The  forms  in  which  potash  may 
be  supplied  to  citrus  trees  are:  high-grade  potash,  con 
taining  about  51  per  cent,  available  potash;  low-grade 
sulphate  of  potash,  containing  about  26  per  cent.;  and 
muriate  of  potash,  containing  about  50  per  cent.  The 
raw  salt,  kainit,  is  also  used  sometimes,  but  the  bulk  per 
unit  of  potash  is  so  great  that  it  is  too  expensive  to  be 
recommended. 

Of  all  the  materials  used,  the  sulphates  are  the  saf- 
est and  best.  It  is  well  established  that  it  is  not  well  to 
use  muriate  of  potash  on  some  crops.  Their  quality  is 
impaired  thereby.  This  is  true  of  tobacco,  the  Irish  po- 
tato, the  sugar  beet  and  perhaps  other  crops.  The  deteri- 
oration is  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  chlorine,  which  inter- 
feres with  the  accumulation  of  starch  as  a  stored  product. 
There  is  a  general  impression  abroad  that  muriate  of 
potash  is  not  a  good  substance  to  use  on  orange  trees, 
and  while  its  deleterious  effects  have  never  been  properly 
elucidated,  the  impression  is  probably  well  grounded.  It 
may  be  that  chlorine  interferes  with  sugar  formation 
and  we  know  that  starch  and  sugar  are  very  closely  re- 
lated compounds,  fruit  sugar  being  C6  H12  O6;  starch, 
C6H1005. 

High-grade  sulphate  of  potash  is  usually  preferable^* 
to  low-grade,  as  the  cost  of  freight  and  handling  is  less 
per  unit  of  potash,  but  either  may  be  used. 

Sources  of  Nitrogen.  Nitrogen  may  be  obtained  as 
nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  dried  blood,  cot- 
tonseed meal  and  castor  pomace.  Tankage,  generally 
sold  in  the  markets  as  blood  and  bone,  is  also  another 
source  of  supply.  Nitrate  of  soda  contains  approxi- 
mately 16  per  cent,  nitrogen ;  sulphate  of  ammonia,  21  per 
cent. ;  dried  blood,  14  per  cent. ;  cottonseed  meal,  6.5  per 


308  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

cent. ;  castor  pomace,  6  per  cent. ;  and  tankage,  6  per  cent. 
The  last  three  also  contain  some  phosphoric  acid.  These 
six  substances  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  the  first 
two  being  designated  as  chemical  sources  of  nitrogen, 
the  last  four  as  organic  sources,  vegetable  or  animal. 

In  Florida  the  use  of  the  chemical  sources  is  always 
advised,  owing  to  the  fact  that  applications  of  cotton- 
seed meal  and  blood  and  other  organic  sources,  or  of 
mixed  fertilizers  containing  these  materials,  have  been 
followed  by  die-back.  This  has  happened  so  repeatedly 
that  any  organic  source  of  nitrogen  is  always,  and  justly, 
regarded  with  suspicion.  Their  use  is  always  attended 
with  considerable  risk  and  it  too  frequently  happens  that 
all  the  growth  added  may  be  lost  owing  to  the  disturb 
ance  of  the  functions  of  the  tree.  In  sections  where  die- 
back  does  not  follow  their  use,  organic  sources  are  good, 
if  used  with  discretion,  but  heavy  applications  may  im- 
pair the  quality  of  the  fruit. 

The  nitrogen  in  nitrate  of  soda  is  available  as  soon 
as  it  is  dissolved  in  the  soil.  Most  of  the  nitrogen  taken 
up  by  plants  is  in  the  form  of  nitrate,  which  explains 
why  the  trees  respond  so  readily  to  applications  of  ni- 
trate of  soda.  It  must  be  used  with  discretion,  else  a 
considerable  part  may  be  leached  from  the  soil,  and  it 
is  preferably  applied  in  a  number  of  separate  dressings 
of  two  or  three  hundred  pounds  per  acre. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  of  such  physical  character 
as  to  be  readily  distributed  through  the  soil.  The  form 
of  the  nitrogen  has  to  be  changed  before  it  can  be  used 
by  plants,  hence  it  does  not  act  so  quickly  as  nitrate  of 
soda.  It  is  an  excellent  form  of  nitrogen  to  use  on  citrus 
groves,  particularly  among  bearing  trees.  Lime  should 


FERTILIZERS   AND   FERTILIZING.  3Q9 

be  present  in  goodly  quantities  in  the  soil  to  secure 
best  results  1' 1:0111  its  use. 

Some  have  said,  and  perffaps  on  good  grounds  so  f 
as  some  crops  are  concerned,  that  it  does  not  matter  from 
what  source  the  three  important  plant  foods  are  derived. 
While  this  may  apply  to  some  crops  and  some  fruits,  of 
citrus  it  is  not  true.  They  reflect  the  food  supply;  they 
may  be  thin-skinned,  heavy  and  juicy  through  the  use  of 
the  proper  materials  and  the  very  flavor  may  be  influenced 
by  the  materials  used  as  fertilizer.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  may  be  thick-skinned,  full  of  rag,  insipid  and  lack- 
ing in  character,  owing  to  the  use  of  poorly  balanced 
fertilizers.  The  tree  itself  may  come  to  an  untimely  end 
through  the  persistent  use  of  rank  organic  sources  of  ni- 
trogen. 

Formulas.  A  number  of  years  ago  it  was  very  diffi- 
cult to  secure  fertilizer  from  any  except  domestic  sources. 
Now,  however,  various  brands  of  fertilizers  for  use  on 
citrus  trees  are  placed  on  the  market.  Many  of  these 
give  excellent  results  and  annually  bear  testimony  to 
the  scrupulous  care  exercised  in  their  preparation.  Still 
there  is  no  question  but  that  in  these  brands  the  cost 
per  unit  of  plant  food  is  greater  than  in  the  raw  mate- 
rials. Even  after  making  allowance  for  the  cost  of  mix- 
ing and  sacking  there  still  remains  a  substantial  bal 
ance  in  favor  of  the  raw  material.  Excellent  results 
have  been  obtained  from  the  use  of  formulas  made  up 
by  growers  themselves.  These  results,  together  with  the 
difference  in  cost,  has  led  to  the  use  of  home  mixtures  on 
the  part  of  many.  Much  may  be  said  both  for  and  against 
them,  but  on  the  whole  they  are  to  be  advised  rather  than 
condemned. 


310  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  greatest  difficulty  is  in  securing  a  uniform  mix- 
ture, but  if  sufficient  care  be  exercised,  this  may  be  over- 
come. Many  growers,  however,  prefer  to  have  the  dealer, 
from  whom  he  secures  his  raw  materials,  mix  them  for 
him.  If  the  dealer  can  be  relied  upon  to  do  the  work 
right,  this  plan  has  much  to  commend  it.  But  good,  uni- 
form mixtures  can  be  made  at  home,  as  has  been  demon- 
strated time  and  again  to  our  own  satisfaction.  For 
home  mixing  of  fertilizers  a  strong  box,  with  smooth 
sides  and  bottom,  sufficiently  large  to  contain  from  500 
to  1,000  pounds,  should  be  provided,  or  the  mixing  may 
be  done  on  a  tight,  smooth,  board  or  cement  floor. 

Young  and  old  trees  differ  in  their  fertilizer  require- 
ments. Young  trees  use  their  food  supply  in  the  forma- 
tion of  wood  and  leaves.  For  the  first  two  or  three  sea- 
sons they  grow  vigorously.  When  the  bearing  period  is 
reached,  a  gradual  change  comes  about;  the  trees  do  not 
grow  so  rapidly  and  a  large  portion  of  the  food  supply 
is  diverted  to  fruit  formation. 

The  demands  on  the  trees  being  different,  the  food 
supplied  should  be  different  in  character.  Young  trees 
require  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen,  while  bearing  trees 
require  less  nitrogen  relatively  and  more  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash. 

For  young  trees  the  fertilizer  should  contain  about 
6  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  8  per  cent,  potash,  and  4  per 
cent,  nitrogen,  while  one  containing  8  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid,  12  per  cent,  potash  and  3  1-2  per  cent,  nitrogen  should 
be  applied  to  the  grove  of  bearing  trees. 

The  following  formulas  contain  approximately  the 
percentage  of  the  three  important  plant  foods  given  above 
for  young  and  for  bearing  trees.  It  is  not  possible  to 
make  up  an  exact  ton  of  fertilizer,  using  the  most  desira- 


FERTILIZERS   AND   FERTILIZING.  3H 

ble  materials,  without  putting  in  some  make-weight.  This 
is  frequently  done,  land  plaster  and  other  materials  being 
used  for  the  purpose.  Land  plaster,  as  a  source  of  lime, 
is  valuable  to  some  extent.  Sand  or  other  extraneous 
matter  is  also  used,  but  anything  of  this  kind  always 
adds  to  the  cost  of  handling.  It  is  recommended  that  the 
make-weight  be  omitted,  in  which  case  a  smaller  amount 
of  fertilizer  should  be  applied  to  each  tree,  if  the  total 
amount  is  less  than  one  ton,  and  more  if  it  is  more  than 
one  ton.  Formula  No.  1,  for  instance,  without  the  make- 
weight, calls  for  1,614  pounds  of  material  and  this  weight 
contains  as  much  actual  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen 
as  a  ton  weight  of  fertilizer  analyzing  6  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  8  per  cent,  potash  and  4  per  cent,  nitrogen. 
It  should  then  be  used  in  place  of  one  ton  of  fertilizer. 
On  the  other  hand  some  of  the  formulas  call  for  more  than 
a  ton  of  materials.  These  should  be  used  as  a  ton  would 
be. 

FORMULAS    FOR    YOUNG    TREES. 
FORMULA    NO.    1. 

Acid    Phosphate    800  pounds. 

H.  G.  Sulphate  Potash 314  pounds. 

Nitrate   of   Soda 500  pounds. 

Make-weight    386  pounds 

2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    2. 

Dissolved  Bone 666  pounds. 

H.  G.  Sulphate  Potash 314  pounds. 

Nitrate  of  Soda 500  pounds. 

Make-weight 520  pounds. 


2,000  pounds. 


312  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

FORMULA   NO.    3. 

Acid    Phosphate    800  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    314  pounds. 

Nitrate    Soda    250  pounds. 

Sulphate    Ammonia    190  pounds. 

Make-weight    446  pounds. 

2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    4. 

Dissolved   Bon©    666  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    314  pounds. 

Nitrate    Soda    250  pounds. 

Sulphate    Ammonia    190  pounds. 

Make-weight    580  pounds. 

2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    5. 

Acid    Phosphate    800  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    314  pounds. 

*Nitrate   Soda    250  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal    615  pounds. 

Make-weight    21  pounds. 

2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    6. 

Dissolved   Bone    666  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate    Potash    314  pounds. 

Nitrate  Soda   250  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal    615  pounds. 

Make-weight    155  pounds. 

2,000  pounds. 


*  Nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia,  when  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  an  organic  source  of  nitrogen  such  as  cotton-seed  meal  or 
dried  blood,  should  be  applied  only  as  a  separate  dressing,  either 
before  or  after  the  organic  fertilizer  has  been  applied,  to  avoid  de- 
nitrification. 


FERTILIZERS  AND  FERTILIZING.  313 

FORMULA    NO.    7. 

Acid    Phosphate    800  pounds. 

H.   G.    Sulphate   Potash    314  pounds. 

Sulphate    Ammonia    190  pounds. 

Cotton-seed    Meal 615  pounds 

Make-weight   81  pounds. 

2,000  pounds 

FORMULA    NO.     8. 

Dissolved    Bone    666  pounds. 

H.   G.    Sulphate   Potash    314  pounds. 

Sulphate    Ammonia    190  pounds. 

Cotton-seed    Meal    615  pounds. 

Make-weight    215  pounds. 

2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    9. 

Acid    Phosphate    800  pounds. 

H.   G.    Sulphate   Potash    314  pounds. 

Cotton-seed    Meal    1,231  pounds. 

2,345  pounds. 

FORMULA   NO.    10. 

Dissolved   Bon©    666  pounds. 

H.   G.    Sulphate   Potash    314  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal   1,231  pounds. 

2,211  pounds. 

The  cotton-seed  meal  may  be  replaced  by  about  one-half  its 
weight  of  dried  blood,  if  so  desired,  or  the  high-grade  sulphate 
of  potash  by  double  its  weight  of  low-grade  sulphate  of  potash, 
but  for  use  in  Florida  neither  cotton-seed  meal  nor  dried  blood 
is  recommended. 


314  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

FORMULAS    FOR    BEARING    TREES. 

FORMULA    NO.    1. 

Acid    Phosphate     1,066  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    470  pounds. 

Sulphate    Ammonia    333  pounds. 

Make-weight     131  pounds 

2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    2. 

Dissolved   Bone    888  pounds, 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    470  pounds. 

Sulphate    Ammonia    333  pounds 

Make-weight    309  pounds. 

2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    3. 

Acid    Phosphate     1,066  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    470  pounds. 

Nitrate    Soda    466  pounds. 

2,002  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    4. 

Dissolved   Bone    888  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    470  pounds. 

Nitrate    Soda    466  pounds. 

Make-weight    176  pounds. 


2,000  pounds. 

FORMULA   NO.    5. 

Acid    Phosphate     1,066  pounds. 

H.    G.    Sulphate   Potash    470  pounds. 

Sulphate  Ammonia    166  pounds. 

Cotton-seed   Meal    588  pounds. 


2,290  pounds. 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.  315 

FORMULA    NO.    6. 

Dissolved  Bone 888  pounds. 

H.  G.  Sulphate  Potash 470  pounds. 

Sulphate  Ammonia 166  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal 588  pounds. 

2,112  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    7. 

Acid  Phosphate  1,066  pounds. 

H.  G.  Sulphate  Potash  470  pounds. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  233  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal 588  pounds. 

2,357  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    8. 

Dissolved  Bone   888  pounds. 

H.  G.  Sulphate  Potash  470  pounds. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  233  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal 588  pounds. 

2,179  pounds. 

FORMULA    NO.    9. 

Acid  Phosphate  1,066  pounds. 

H.  G.  Sulphate  Potash 470  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal  1,077  pounds. 

2,613  pounds. 

FORMULA   NO.    10. 

Dissolved  Bone   888  pounds. 

H.  G.  Sulphate  Potash 470  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  Meal  .' 1,077  pounds. 

2,435  pounds. 

Amounts  Required.  The  amounts  of  fertilizer  re- 
quired depends  upon  the  age  and  size  of  the  trees,  the 
quantity  of  fruit  borne,  the  amount  of  fertility  already 


316  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

in  the  soil  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen  supplied  by  the 
cover  crop,  if  one  be  grown. 

On  poor  soils  a  pound  or  two  of  the  fertilizer  used 
for  young  trees  should  be  incorporated  with  the  soil  at 
the  time  of  planting.  If  the  trees  are  set  in  winter  an 
additional  pound  should  be  given  in  June.  The  second 
year  the  amount  to  the  tree  should  be  increased  as  the 
trees  will  be  well  established  and  can  use  more  to  advan- 
tage. Each  succeeding  year  the  amount  must  be  in- 
creased, never  allowing  the  trees  to  become  stunted  or 
to  assume  a  starved  appearance.  It  is  better  to  antici- 
pate their  needs  than  to  wait  until  they  are  badly  in  need 
of  food. 

Where  a  leguminous  cover  crop  is  grown,  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  may  be  lessened  and  on  all  soils  rich  in  cer- 
tain plant  food,  those  which  are  present  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities should  be  omitted  in  the  fertilizer  applied.  If  it  is 
noted  that  the  trees  are  growing  too  vigorously,  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  should  be  decreased.  In  case  of  die 
back,  nitrogen  should  not  be  used  and  the  actual  amount 
of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  may  be  increased  to  good 
advantage. 

When  the  trees  begin  to  fruit,  the  formula  should 
be  changed  to  one  for  fruit  and  the  formula  for  growth 
may  be  applied  at  any  time  it  is  seen  that  the  trees  are 
not  adding  sufficient  new  wood.  Trees  producing  ten 
boxes  of  fruit  on  Florida  soil  should  receive  about  thirty 
or  thirty-five  pounds  per  tree.  This  same  proportion 
may  be  preserved  for  each  ten  boxes  of  fruit.  It  may  be 
noted  that  the  pomelo  is  an  exceedingly  vigorous  grower 
and  can  use  more  fertilizer  to  advantage  than  some 
other  kinds  of  citrus. 


FERTILIZERS  AND  FERTILIZING.  31J 

Applying  the  fertilizer.  In  applying  fertilizer  to 
young  trees  it  should  be  scattered  in  a  circle  of  four  or 
five  feet  radius  or  more,  depending  upon  the  extent 
of  area  covered  by  the  feeding  roots.  It  is  best  that  none 
be  applied  closer  than  two  feet  to  the  tree  as  injury  may 
result  to  the  crown  roots.  Fertilizer  for  large,  bearing 
trees  should  be  scattered  broadcast  through  the  grove. 

After  applying  fertilizer  the  ground  should  be  culti- 
vated. This  prevents  the  formation  of  a  crust  on  the 
surface  and  the  wasting  of  fertilizer.  Besides,  some 
materials  become  fixed  soon  after  being  applied,  and  it  is 
best  that  they  be  incorporated  with  the  soil  before  this 
takes  place. 

Fertilizers  are  generally  applied  some  little  time  be- 
fore growth  starts  in  the  spring  and  again  about  the 
month  of  June.  Some  growers  make  an  application  about 
October.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  regions  where  citrus 
trees  are  liable  to  damage  from  frost  that  the  growing 
period  is  not  prolonged  too  late  in  autumn.  The  growth 
should  be  well  hardened  up  before  frost  comes.  In  the 
hope  of  evading  this  evil,  Mr.  Cyrus  W.  Butler,  of  St. 
Petersburg,  Fla.,  says  he  fertilizes,  "First  about  the  last 
of  January,  using  a  high  percentage  of  nitrogen;  second, 
during  May,  using  a  small  percentage  of  nitrogen;  and 
third,  in  September  or  October,  using  little  or  no  nitro- 
gen." His  practice  is  founded  on  sound  principles. 


Fig.  70.  Map  of  Florid*,  showing  Lake  Regions  and  Artesian  Well  Area. 

3,  Jacksonville.  2,  St.  Augustine.   3.  Sanford.  4,  Titusvllle.   5,  Bartow. 
6,  Terra  Ceir..     7,  Pa'metto.     8,  Manatee.     9,  Myers.     10,  Palatka. 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 
THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  the  culture  of  citrus  fruits 
where  an  adequate  supply  of  water  cannot  be  secured, 
either  naturally  as  rainfall,  or  artificially,  by  irrigation. 
If  the  trees  do  not  receive  a  sufficient  amount  of  water, 
the  results  will  not  be  satisfactory.  When  an  inadequate 
quantity,  only,  is  available,  the  trees  do  not  make  a  nor- 
mal growth,  the  leaves  curl  and  drop,  the  young  fruit 
falls  off  and  such  as  is  brought  to  maturity  is  deficient 
in  juice  and  inferior  in  quality.  Under  such  conditions, 
the  trees  become  fit  subjects  for  the  attacks  of  fungous 
parasites  and  scale  insects.  The  combination  of  unthrifti- 
uess  due  to  the  lack  of  water  and  the  inroads  of  differ- 
ent enemies,  soon  brings  about  the  death  of  the  trees  or 
the  abandonment  of  the  grove  by  the  owner. 

Hence,  in  selecting  a  site  for  a  grove  it  is  well  to  be 
assured  that  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  will  always  be 
available.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  citrus  trees 
require  more  w^ater  than  deciduous  trees  of  equal  size 
and  age.  Transpiration  is  greatly  reduced  during  the 
winter  season  or  dormant  period  in  such  trees  as  peaches, 
plums  and  pears.  They  shed  their  leaves  in  autumn  and, 
in  consequence,  the  transpiration  area  is  greatly  lessened. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  leaf  area  of  citrus  trees  is  the 
same  winter  and  summer  alike  and  a  like  amount  of  water 
is  transpired  in  winter  as  in  summer,  where  the  climatic 
conditions  are  favorable  to  growth.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
citrus  trees  are  more  or  less  active  all  the  time. 


320 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


The  minimum  quantity  of  water  required  depends 
upon  the  character  and  depth  of  the  soil,  the  kind  of 
stock,  the  age  and  the  bearing  capacity  of  the  trees. 

In  California,  where  irrigation  of  citrus  fruits  is 
practiced  on  an  extensive  scale  and  where  intelligent  care 
is  exercised  in  the  conservation  of  moisture,  the  total 
amount  of  water  provided  by  rainfall  and  irrigation  is, 
in  most  cases,  between  thirty  and  forty  inches.  In  times 
of  extreme  drought  and  scarcity,  even  less  than  two  feet 
has  sufficed.  But  if  the  attempt  were  made  to  make  this 
amount  do  season  after  season,  failure  would  result  in 
most  cases. 

In  relation  to  irrigation,  the  areas  in  which  citrus 
fruits  are  grown  in  the  United  States  may  be  divided  into 
two  sections.  The  first  embraces  California  and  Arizona, 
in  which  water  must  be  supplied  artificially  that  the 
trees  may  grow  and  mature  fruit.  The  second  consists 
of  the  citrus  sections  of  Florida,  where  irrigation  is  the 
exception,  not  the  rule,  but  where  it  is  occasionally  re- 
sorted to,  to  supplement  a  copious,  but  sometimes  irregu- 
lar, rainfall. 


IRRIGATION    IN    FLORIDA. 


ANNUAL    PRECIPITATION     IN    INCHES    AT    FOUR    POINTS    IN    FLORIDA    FOR 
FIVE    YEARS,    AND    THE    AVERAGE    PRECIPITATION    FOR   THE    STATE. 


1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

Jacksonville  
Jupiter  
Key  West  
Tampa  

53.85 
52.65 
48.81 
55  45 

54.22 
76  08 
37.02 
42.06 

55  52 
45.79 
38.61 
50.38 

45.71 
39.10 
43.39 
50.53 

38.59 
61  93 
29.55 
63  82 

State  average. 

52.30 

51.72 

44.98 

48.36 

51.77 

THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  321 

The  annual  rainfall  in  Florida,  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying table,  is  certainly  ample  for  the  development 
of  citrus  fruits.  In  fact,  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  state- 
ments made  regarding  the  amounts  of  water  used  in  Cal- 
ifornia, it  might  by  some  be  deemed  excessive.  But  even 
with  such  a  heavy  precipitation,  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  groves  suffer  to  some  extent,  or  at  least  they 
would  at  times  be  benefited  by  an  additional  supply  of 
moisture.  If  the  heavy  rainfall  were  divided  up  into 
a  large  number  of  equal  portions  and  these  distributed 
at  regular  intervals,  citrus  trees  would  certainly  never 
suffer  from  lack  of  moisture.  Frequently  the  total  rain- 
fall for  a  month  comes  in  a  few  hours,  and  most  of  it 
runs  off  in  the  streams  and  rivers.  The  water  has  no 
opportunity  to  sink  in,  and  consequently  the  soil  is  not 
capable  of  retaining  it. 

The  period  during  which  this  is  most  likely  to  occur 
and  the  period  likewise  in  which  the  rainfall  is  most  un- 
certain and  during  which  the  groves  are  most  likely  to 
suffer  is  between  the  first  of  March  and  the  middle  of  June. 
Frequently  during  this  time,  weeks  pass  without  a  shower, 
while  at  other  times,  an  amount  of  water  sufficient  for 
the  whole  period  is  precipitated  within  a  few  hours.  It 
is  during  this  time  that  groves  would  be  benefited  by 
being  irrigated  and  the  constant  recurrence  of  these  con- 
ditions, year  after  year,  lias  led  many  growers  located 
even  on  comparatively  moist  soils,  to  make  provision  for 
applying  water  artificially.  The  period  from  June  to 
October  is  usually  designated  as  the  "rainy  season,"  the 
season  of  heavy  precipitation,  during  which  showers  are 
of  daily  occurrence  and  during  which  irrigation  is  un- 
necessarv  and  needless. 


12 


322  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

As  pointed  out  in  Chapter  XXVIII,  the  soils  of 
Florida  are  light,  sandy  and  porous.  Compared  with  Cali- 
fornia soils,  their  water  holding  capacity  is  considerably 
less.  Hence,  under  similar  climatic  conditions,  at  equal  alti- 
tudes, Florida  soils  would  prove  greatly  inferior  to  those 
of  California,  if  the  irrigation  problem  alone  were  con- 
sidered. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  noted  that  were  it 
necessary  to  irrigate  to  the  same  extent!  as  it  is  necessary 
both  in  California  and  Arizona,  under  present  existing 
conditions,  it  could  be  done  much  more  economically  in 
Florida  than  in  the  above  mentioned  sections.  The  in- 
numerable lakes,  streams  and  springs  afford  an  ample 
water  supply,  one  which  might  be  drawn  on  at  a  small 
cost,  while  the  underground  waters  are  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  surface  and  quite  accessible.  A  glance  at 
Fig.  70  will  give  an  idea  of  the  number  of  lakes  scattered 
throughout  Florida.  In  the  lake  region  of  Polk  County, 
for  instance,  they  are  so  thickly  scattered  that  large  num- 
bers are  in  view  from  a  single  elevated  point,  and  within 
a  radius  of  five  miles  from  Winter  Haven,  there  are  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  lakes. 

ARTESIAN    WELLS.* 

The  Florida  artesian  basin  is  an  important  feature. 
Commencing  at  Jacksonville,  Fig.  70  the  area  follows  the 
St.  Johns  River  and  somewhere  south  of  Sanford  swings 
across  to  Bartow,  Myers  and  the  Manatee  section.  Flow- 
ing wells  have  been  obtained  at  St.  Augustine  (Fig.  70,  2), 
Palatka  (10),  Sanford  (3),  Titusville  (4),  Palmetto  (7), 


*  It  is  probably  best  to  secure  water  from  lakes,  rivers  or  shallow 
wells  in  Florida.  In  this  State,  artesian  water  has  frequentlly 
proved  injurious  to  citrus  trees. 


THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  323 

Terra  Ceia  (6),  as  well  as  at  the  points  already  mentioned 
and  many  others  not  indicated  on  the  map.  One  of  these 
wells  is  shown  in  Fig.  74. 

While  the  surface  of  Florida  is  remarkably  flat  to 
the  eye  and  such  elevations  as  do  occur  are  not  strongly 
marked,  there  are  two  main  anticlinal  folds,  the  higher 


Fig1.  71.     Elevations  and  depressions  in  Florida,  between  Tampa  and 
Titusville.      (From   Rep.  TT.   S.    G.    Survey.) 

one  passing  through  Jasper,  Lake  City,  Gainesville, 
Brooksville,  Lakeland,  Bartow,  Fort  Meade,  Arcadia  and 
gradually  disappearing  at  the  southern  end  of  the  penin- 
sula. Some  points  upon  the  crest  of  the  other  are  Mac- 
clenny,  Lawtey,  Starke,  Hampton,  Interlachen,  Summit, 
Highland,  Orlando  and  Narcoose.  It  may  be  noted  here 
that  some  of  the  points  on  these  ridges,  as  Brooksville, 
Lake  City  and  Highland,  are  more  than  200  feet  above 
sea  level,  while  many  of  the  points  in  the  syncline  or 
valley  between  the  two  folds,  as  well  as  points  on  either 
coast  are  but  a  few  feet  above  sea  level.  These  folds  give 
plenty  of  head  for  the  downward  flow  of  water.  Fig. 
71,  which  represents  a  section  of  the  State  from  Tampa 
to  Titusville,  illustrates  this  point. 

The  artesian  wells  are  made  possible  by  the  collec- 
tion of  water  in  an  inclined  pervious  layer  of  rock  which 
lies  between  two  impervious  layers.  Water  collects  in 
this  layer  under  pressure  and  when  wells  are  drilled  into 
it,  it  rushes  upward,  reaching  nearly  the  same  level  as 


324 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


the  plane  at  which  it  entered.  Now,  it  is  not  improba- 
ble that  the  lakes  in  the  higher  sections  of  Florida  are 
the  source  of  many  artesian  wells.  Numbers  of  these 
lakes  are  not  drained  by  rivers  or  streams  and  have  no 
visible  outlet,  but  in  a  number  of  cases  they  have 
been  entirely  emptied  for  a  time,  by  the  disap- 


Fig.  72.     Diagram  showing  how  artesian  wells  are  formed.     A,  lake. 
B,  pervious  layer  of  rock.     C,  artesian  well. 

pearance  of  the  water  through  an  opening  in 
the  bottom.  It  is  probable  that  water  frequently 
escapes  constantly  through  a  pervious  stratum  lo- 
cated in  the  bottom  or  opening  into  the  side.  Fig.  72 
shows  how  this  might  be.  Opening  into  the  lake,  A.,  is 
a  pervious  layer,  B.,  located  between  two  impervious 
layers  into  which  the  water  passes.  The  water  following 
the  dip  in  the  strata  flows  downward,  and  if  a  well  is 
bored  at  C.,  the  water  will  rise  above  the  surface.  The 
Florida  wells  are  usually  between  forty  and  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  deep,  though  some  are  even  deeper. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  irrigation  from  artesian 
wells  is  feasible  onlv  on  the  lower  levels. 


PUMPING    WATER. 


The  higher  grounds  can,  however,  be  irrigated  by 
pumping  from  wells  or  lakes.  Many  lakes  are  located  on 
the  higher  levels.  In  the  vicinity  of  Lake  City,  two  hun- 


Plate  XX. 


Fig.  A.     Wind-mill,  pump  and  tank  in  a  citrus  grove. 


Fig.  B.    A  temporary  steam  pumping  plant  on  a  lake-shore  in  Florida. 


320 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


dred  and  two  feet  above  the  sea  level,  there  are  eight  lakes. 
From  these  water  could  readily  be  obtained  by  pumping, 
using  wind,  steam  or  gasolene  power.  A  temporary  steam 
pumping  plant  on  the  shore  of  a  Florida  lake  is  shown 
in  Fig.  B,  Plate  XX. 

In  most  sections  of  the  State,  water  can  easily  be 
secured  from  wells.  These  are  sometimes  dug,  but  in 
many  cases,  a  sharp,  hollow,  perforated  joint  at  the  end 
of  an  inch  and  a  half  galvanized  iron  pipe  is  driven  into 
the  soil  until  a  water-bearing  level  is  reached,  often  at 
a  depth  of  not  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  water 
is  then  pumped  out  by  means  of  a  windmill.  In  such 
cases,  a  tank  must  always  be  provided,  as  the  stream 
pumped  directly  from  the  well  would  be  much  too  small 
to  accomplish  any  good.  A  pumping  plant  with  wind- 
mill power  is  illustrated  in  Plate  XX. 

The  following  table  was  given  by  King  in  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  46,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
is  of  interest  as  showing  the  amount  of  work  that  can 
be  accomplished  by  wind-motor  power : 

NUMBER  OP  ACRES  A  FIRST-CLASS  WIND-MFLL  WILL  IRRIGATE  TWO 
AND  FOUR  INCHES  DEEP  EVERY  TEN  DAYS  WHEN  WORKING  EIGHT 
HOURS  PER  DAY,  AND  LIFTING  WATER  TEN,  FIFTEEN  AND  TWENTY- 
FIVE  FEET,  RESPECTIVELY. 


Diameter  of 
Wind  mill 

LIFT  OF  10  FEET. 

LIFT  OF  15  FEET 

LIFT  OF 

25  FEET 

Lift 

2  Inches 

4  Inches 

2  Inches 

4  Inches 

2  Inches 

4  Inches 

Feet 

Acres 

Acres 

Acres 

Acres 

Acres 

Acres 

8.5 

1.35          0.67 

0.9 

0.45           0.55 

0.27 

10 

4.27           2  13 

2.85 

1.42           1.70 

0.85 

12 

7.66          3.83 

5.11 

2.55           3.00 

1.50 

14 

9.87          4.93 

6.58 

3  29           3.99 

1.99 

16 

13.79          6.89 

9.19 

4.59 

5.71 

2.85 

18 

22.09 

11.04 

14.14 

7.07 

8.64 

4.32 

20 

27  36         13.68 

IB.1'5 

9  12 

11.04 

5  52 

25 

47.06 

23.53 

31.38 

15  6!> 

18.77 

9.38 

30 

95.46 

47.73 

64.42 

32.21 

38.08 

19.04 

THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVE 'R. 


327 


Sub-irrigation  with  jointed  tile  or  perforated  pipe 
is  not  feasible  in  citrus  groves,  as  the  tile  or  pipe  soon 
becomes  plugged  by  the  fibrous  roots.  In  a  few  cases 

cement  tile  has  been  used, 
but  in  most  cases  the  water 
is  conducted  to  the  trees 
by  means  of  iron  pipes  laid 
beneath  the  surface  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  culti- 
vation. From  these,  stand- 
pipes,  provided  with  taps 
or  spraying  nozzles,  are 
brought  up  near  each  tree. 
In  irrigating  by  steam  en- 
gine or  gasolene  power,  the 
water  may  be  pumped  di- 
rectly into  the  pipes.  Gen- 
erally the  power  provided 
is  not  sufficient  to  irrigate 
the  whole  area  at  one  time. 
The  taps  in  one  section  are 
opened  and  the  ground  is 
thoroughly  moistened.  This 
accomplished,  they  are 
closed  and  another  set  is 
opened,  and  so  on  until  the 
whole  grove  receives  its 
quota  of  water. 

Soils  provided  with  a 
comparatively  compact  clay  sub-soil  at  a  depth  of  eighteen 
to  twenty-four  inches  may  be  irrigated  by  the  furrow  sys- 
tem, as  described  further  on.  If  water  is  conducted  to  the 
grove  under  pressure  in  iron  pipes,  it  may  be  sprayed  upon 


Mg.  73.  Spraying-  stands  used  in 
Florida,  provided  with  Japanese 
and  Cyclone  nozzles. 


328  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  trees  during  the  dry  season  to  check  the  ravages  of  red 
spider.  This  insect  cannot  withstand  the  presence  of  a 
considerable  amount  of  moisture  on  the  trees. 

It  must  be  conceded,  however,  that  the  cheapest  way 
to  distribute  water  in  a  grove  of  orange  trees  is  to  allow 
it  to  run  in  furrows  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  and, 
other  conditions  being  equal,  this  method  should  be  given 
preference.  Less  power  is  required  to  provide  the  supply 
and  the  equipment  is,  on  the  whole,  less  expensive.  On 
clay  soils  or  soils  with  a  clay  subsoil  close  to  the  surface, 
and  with  sufficient  fall,  it  is  the  best  plan  to  follow. 

IRRIGATION    IN    CALIFORNIA    AND    ARIZONA. 

In  California  and  Arizona,  it  is  not  possible  to  main- 
tain a  grove  of  citrus  trees  without  resorting  to  irriga- 
tion. The  water  supplied  by  rainfall  is  insufficient  for 
their  needs,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  the  cost  of 
fruit  production  must  be  charged  to  the  irrigation  ac- 
count. Prof.  Newell  says,  "The  annual  charge  for  the 
irrigation  of  citrus  lands  in  southern  California  varies 
from  $5  to  $30  per  acre,  and  will  probably  not  average 
far  from  $10  per  acre  irrigated,  the  supply  being  usually 
12  inches  in  depth  of  irrigation  water." 

The  amount  required  in  different  localities  and  even 
on  adjacent  ranches  varies  greatly.  The  following  table 
copied  from  Bulletin  No.  108,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  by  Prof.  E.  J. 
Wickson,  shows  the  season  of  year  during  which  irriga- 
tion is  practiced,  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  the  amount 
of  irrigation  water  supplied  in  several  of  the  citrus  dis- 
tricts : 


THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES. 


329 


SUMMARY  SHOWING  IRRIGATION  SEASON  AND  FREQUENCY  OF 
APPLICATION  AND  AMOUNTS  OF  WATER  USED  FOR  CITRUS 
FRUITS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


COUNTY 

Rain- 
fall 

Irrigation  Season 

Number  of 
Irrigations 

Depth  of 
Erich  Ap- 
plication 

Total 
Depth  for 
Season 

Butte  

April  to  Oct.  .. 

5-  6 

Inches 
4.5 

Inches 
22-26 

Fresno  

8 

2-   7 

2 

4-14 

Tulare  

March  to  Sept. 

6 

2 

12 

10 

April  to  Oct.  .. 
March  to  Oct  .  . 

5-  8 
8-10 

4 

6 

20-32 
48-60 

Santa  Barbara 

<  <               <  < 

5-  7 

2 

10-14 

Ventura 

20 

«               it 

5-  6 

2  5 

12  5-15 

Los  Angeles.  .. 
Orange  

12 
10 
18 
20 
20 
20 
20 
18 
15 
18 
18 
18 
18 

June  to  Oct.  .. 
May  to  Oct  
June  to  Oct.  .  . 
July  to  Sept  .  .  . 

March  to  Nov. 

May  to  Oct  .... 
July  to  Oct  
April  to  Oct.  .. 
May  to  Oct  .... 
May,  July,  Sept. 

6 
3 
3-  4 
3-  7 
6 
7 
3 
6 
4 
7 
6 

0 

6.8 
3.5 
4 
1.5 
1 
0.75-2 
1.5 
2 
1.5 
1.5 
2.5 
2.75 
4 

18-27 
21 
12 
4.5-6 
3-7 
.4.5-12 
10.5 
9 
9 
6 
17.5 
16.5 
12 

San  Bernardino 

15 
10 
12 
12 
12 
12 

May  to  Oct.  .  .  . 

When  needed.  . 
March  to  Dec.  . 
When  needed.  . 
March  to  Oct.  . 

4 
4-  8 
6-  8 
8 
3-  5 
8 
8 

2.5 
2 
4 
5 
4 
2 
75-1.5 

10 
8-16 
24-32 
40 
12-20 
16 
6-12 

(  4 

Riverside  

12 
12 

12 

June  to  Oct  
May  to  Sept.  .. 
April  to  Dec... 
When  needed 

6-  7 
4-  6 
8 
8 

4.5 
6 
2- 
2 

24-31.5 
24-36 
16 
16 

«  <          <  « 

9 

1  5 

13  5 

<  < 

<  ( 
i  < 

'i 

10 
8 

May  to  Nov.  .  . 
April  to  Sept  .  . 
April  to  Nov.  . 
April  to  Dec.  .  . 

7 
6 
7 
8 

3 
1.66 
3 

21 
10 
21 

<  < 

11 

May  to  Nov  .  .  . 

3-  7 

San  Diego  

10 
8 
12 
10 

18 

May  to  Sept  .  .  . 
May  to  Oct  

«                              4« 

(  (                              (  < 

June  to  Oct.  .. 

4-  6 
4 
5 
4-  8 
6-  8 
3 

6 
2.5 
3 
2 
4 
3 

24-36 
10 
15 
8-16 
24-32 
9 

Plate  XXI. 


Fig.  A.     Irrigating-  by  means  of  furrows. 


Fig.   B.      Basin   irrigation   of   citrus    trees. 


Photos  from  S.  M.  Teague,  San  Dimas,  Cal. 

Fig.  C.     Zigzag  irrigation  of  citrus  trees. 


THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES. 


331 


From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  average 
annual  rainfall  is  13.7  inches,  but  that  it  varies  all  the 
way  from  7  to  20  inches.  It  will  be  noted  further  that 
the  irrigation  season  runs  from  March  to  about  October, 
this  being  the  period  of  greatest  heat,  least  rainfall  and 
most  vigorous  growth  of  fruit  and  branch.  The  amount  of 
irrigation  water  in  most  cases  does  not  exceed  thirty 
inches  and  by  far  the  greater  number  of  citrus  groves 
receive  twentv  inches  or  less  in  addition  to  the  rainfall. 


Fig.  74.     Artesian  Well  at  Sanford,  Florida. 


The  variation  in  the  amount  used  is  due  to  the  elevation, 
the  temperature,  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  rain- 
fall. Some  localities  are  specially  favored  in  receiving 
a  large  amount  of  water  at  a  small  cost  and  there  it  is 
generally  found  that  it  is  used  more  freely  than  where 
higher  rates  prevail.  Still,  the  amount  used  in  all  cases 
is  small  and  bears  testimony  to  a  careful  and  conserva- 
tive use  of  water  by  the  growers. 


332  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Though  in  some  cases  water  is  obtained  from  wells, 
most  of  it  is  procured  from  reservoirs  in  the  mountains 
or  from  rivers,  being  conducted  to  the  fruit  districts  in 
pipe  lines  or  canals.  From  these  each  individual  grower 
receives  his  supply. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    WATER. 

The  water  is  usually  delivered  in  ditches,  cement 
flumes,  wooden  flumes  or  cement  tile  lines  at  the  highest 
part  of  the  grove  and  from  there  distributed  to  the 
trees.  The  methods  of  irrigation  commonly  used  are 
the  furrow  and  check,  the  former  being  the  one  most 
generally  adopted. 

FURROW    SYSTEM. 

In  the  furrow  system  the  water  is  delivered  in  a 
flume  along  the  higher  portion  of  the  grove  and  the  water 
is  delivered  through  the  gates  into  the  furrows  which 
run  out  between  the  tree  rows.  The  number  of  furrows 
to  each  interspace  varies  with  the  size  of  the  trees  as 
well  as  their  age.  In  irrigating  small  trees  fewer  fur- 
rows are  used,  while  in  groves  of  large  trees  set  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  apart  from  five  to  nine  furrows  are  used. 
The  water  is  not  turned  into  all  the  furrows  of  the  grove 
at  once,  but  is  supplied  to  a  small  number  at  one  time. 
Through  these  furrows  the  water  makes  its  way,  until 
it  reaches  the  lower  end  when  the  gates  in  the  flume  are 
closed  and  the  water  diverted  into  another  set  of  furrows. 

The  continued  application  of  water  at  the  same  depth 
frequently  brings  about  the  formation  of  what  has  been 
termed  "irrigation  hardpan."  The  soil  on  a  level  with  the 
bottom  furrows  becomes  hard  and  compact  and  prevents 


THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  333 

the  water  from  entering.  This  difficulty  Avas  overcome 
by  breaking  up  this  hard  layer  with  a  subsoil  plow  and 
in  many  cases  this  method  was  so  vigorously  followed 
that  great  injury  was  done  the  trees.  Large  numbers 
of  roots  were  torn  up  and  destroyed.  Following  this 
a  reaction  set  in  and  experience  has  taught  that  the 
best  method  to  pursue  in  treating  irrigation  hardpan 
is  to  deepen  the  soil  gradually  instead  of  attempting  to 
accomplish  it  at  one  operation.  The  depth  of  cultivation 
should  be  varied  from  time  to  time,  and  the  irrigation 
furrows  should  open  well  into  the  lower  soil  to  permit 
the  free  entrance  of  water. 

In  distributing  the  water  through  the  grove  it  should 
be  allowed  to  flow  gradually  and  sink  well  in.  By  this 
plan  better  results  will  be  obtained  with  the  same  amount 
of  water  than  by  applying  it  in  a  shorter  space  of  time. 

Following  the  application  of  water  the  soil  should 
be  cultivated  as  soon  as  its  condition  will  permit.  Shal- 
low cultivation  at  this  time  will  prevent  the  formation 
of  a  hard  crust  on  the  surface  and  the  consequent  loss 
of  moisture  by  capillary  movement. 

CHECK    SYSTEM. 

Citrus  trees  may  be  irrigated  by  the  check  method 
and,  when  thoroughly  done,  it  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 
It  entails  a  great  amount  of  hard  labor  in  preparing 
the  surface  to  receive  the  water,  in  distributing  it  and 
in  getting  the  soil  leveled  and  in  tillable  condition  after 
the  work  of  irrigation  is  completed.  Generally,  the  method 
gives  better  results  on  porous  soils  than  the  furrow  sys- 
tem. This  method  is  described  as  follows  by  Mr.  Sy ri- 
mer Ross,  of  Fullerton,  Cal.,  in  Bulletin  No.  108,  U.  S. 
D.  A.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations : 


334  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

"The  ground  must  be  cultivated,  say,  about  five 
inches  deep,  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  loose  soil  with  which 
to  throw  up  a  high  ridge.  Then  a  four  or  six-horse 
'ridger'  should  be  run  once  each  way  between  the  rows, 
if  it  is  a  citrus  or  deciduous  orchard,  or  twice  should 
the  trees  be  walnuts,  because  these  trees  are  grown  about 
forty  feet  apart.  After  this  is  done  the  ridger  should 
be  run  entirely  around  the  outside  of  the  piece  to  be 
irrigated,  so  as  to  have  as  perfect  a  ridge  as  possible  on 
the  outside.  One  man  will  ridge  about  fifteen  acres  in 
a  day.  The  ridger  should  be  built  with  a  steel  plate  ex- 
tending along  the  bottom  of  both  sides,  bolted  to  the  in- 
side and  projecting  about  two  inches,  so  as  to  take  a 
good  hold  of  the  ground.  Then  with  one  horse  attached 
to  what  is  locally  known  as  a  'jump  scraper,'  one  side 
of  the  checks  should  be  closed  up,  for  the  ridger  in  mak- 
ing the  cross  ridges  breaks  down  the  first  ridge  at  its 
intersection.  These  repairs  were  first  made  with  a  shovel, 
but  the  'jump  scraper,'  also  locally  called  the  'horse- 
shovel,'  closes  up  the  gaps  very  quickly.  The  practice 
generally  followed  is  to  close  up  the  high  side  of  the 
checks  if  the  land  does  not  cut  by  running  water,  but 
if  it  cuts,  close  up  the  lower  side. 

"After  closing  up  the  checks  the  ditches  are  plowed 
out  and  then  the  V-shaped  'crowder'  is  run  through 
them.  On  lands  inclined  to  cut,  it  is  advisable  that  the 
length  of  the  rows  to  be  irrigated  should  not  be  over  250 
feet,  but  in  heavy  land  this  distance  can  be  considerably 
increased,  if  necessary,  without  danger  of  cutting  the 
ridges  by  too  long  a  run  of  water. 

"If  the  checks  have  been  closed  up  on  the  low  side 
of  the  ridge,  it  is  better  to  run  the  water  to  the  ends 
of  the  ditch  and  water  the  last  row  first;  but  if  the  high 


THE  IRRIGATION  OF  CITRUS  GROVES.  335 

side  has  been  closed  up,  it  is  best  to  water  first  the  row 
nearest  the  gate  or  the  main  ditch,  as  the  case  may  be, 
as  in  each  instance  dry  earth  will  thus  be  available,  if 
necessary,  to  close  up  the  checks.  The  water  is  run  down 
the  row  to  the  end  tree,  and  as  soon  as  the  last  check  is 
filled  it  is  closed  up,  and  so  on  till  all  are  filled  and 
closed,  when  water  is  turned  down  the  next  row. 

"To  do  good  work,  it  is  usual  to  allow  three  men 
for  every  fifty  inches  of  water,  but  in  our  own  practice 
we  have  had  much  better  results  by  dividing  up  our 
water  and  running  from  35  to  40  inches  to  a  ditch  and 
allowing  two  men  for  such  streams.  In  doing  this  we 
get  better  work  and  find  it  much  easier  for  the  men.  If 
everything  is  well  in  hand,  each  man  will  irrigate  about 
thirty  acres  in  a  day. 

"For  turning  the  water  from  the  ditches  into  the 
checks  metal  dams  or  tappoons  are  used.  The  gate  is  not 
a  great  success,  as  the  water  is  apt  soon  to  cut  its  way 
under  the  tappoon,  but  it  may  be  much  improved  by  hav- 
ing a  shelf  for  the  water  to  drop  on  after  it  passes 
through  the  opening.  The  common  practice  for  divid- 
ing water  is  to  throw  a  tappoon  partly  across  the  ditch, 
putting  a  gunny-sack  on  the  opposite  side  to  prevent  cut- 
ting by  the  water.  This  is,  on  the  whole,  fully  as  sat- 
isfactory as  using  the  tappoon  with  a  gate. 

"All  who  follow  this  system  should  get  ready  for 
the  water  before  it  comes.  A  great  many  seem  to  think 
that  if  they  ridge  up  their  land,  close  up  the  checks  and 
plow  out  their  ditches,  everything  necessary  has  been 
done.  Such  is  not  the  case,  as  ditches  that  are  liable 
to  cut  should  be  fixed  in  the  weak  places  with  brush  or 
burlaps.  Old  gunny-sacks  cut  open  and  spread  out  are 
excellent  for  this  purpose.  Occasionally  there  are  places 


336  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

where  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  perfect  ridge.  These  should 
be  looked  up  and  fixed  with  a  shovel.  The  jump  scraper 
will  not  entirely  close  up  a  check;  it  generally  requires 
a  shovelful  or  two  to  complete  it.  It  is  usual  after  the 
water  is  turned  down  one  row  to  fix  up  the  next  one, 
but  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  a  few  rows  ahead,  for 
there  come  times  when  breaks  occur  and  there  is  not 
time  to  make  the  necessary  repairs,  and  when  water  once 
gets  the  start  there  is  apt  to  be  much  trouble  and  hard 
work  before  it  can  be  put  under  control,  besides  doing 
poor  work. 

"After  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work,  the  ridges 
are  split  with  a  listing  plow  or  a  furrower  attached  to 
a  cultivator.  Then  the  ground  should  be  run  over  with 
a  harrow,  setting  the  teeth  to  go  well  in,  so  as  to  pulverize 
the  surface  thoroughly.  By  using  the  harrow  the  ground 
can  be  worked  about  one  day  earlier  than  with  the  cul- 
tivator, and  it  also  prevents  the  ground  from  baking  till 
such  times  as  it  can  be  worked  with  the  latter  implement, 
besides  doing  far  better  work  than  with  the  cultivator 
alone,  especially  when  there  is  much  land  to  go  over,  as 
some  of  it  is  certain  to  get  too  dry  before  it  can  be 
reached,  and  then  it  will  not  pulverize  well.  All  trees 
should  be  worked  around  by  hand  with  either  a  fork 
or  a  hoe  as  soon  after  irrigation  as  the  ground  becomes 
dry  enough  and  before  it  becomes  hard." 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 
FROST  PROTECTION. 

The  question  of  frost  protection  is  one  which  has  been 
forcibly  brought  to  the  attention  of  citrus  growers,  dur- 
ing the  last  decade,  in  nearly  all  districts  in  the  United 
States  in  which  oranges  or  other  citrus  fruits  are  grown. 
The  frequent  occurrence  of  frost  and  an  occasional  freeze, 
injurious  to  trees  or  fruit,  or  to  both,  has  awakened  great 
interest  in  the  methods  of  protecting  citrus  groves  from 
the  effects  of  cold.  As  a  result,  many  different  plans  have 
been  brought  forward.  Some  of  these  have  stood  the  test 
of  many  trials,  while  others  have  been  discarded  in  favor 
of  better  or  more  economical  methods.  In  no  region  has 
the  growing  of  citrus  fruits  been  abandoned  entirely  be- 
cause of  the  effects  of  cold,  and  a  very  considerable  degree 
of  success  has  rewarded  the  efforts  of  many  to  maintain 
their  groves  in  exposed  regions.  No  matter  what  means 
of  protection  may  be  adopted,  the  principal  factor  in  the 
success  of  any  one  of  them  is  the  individual  himself.  Pro- 
vision must  be  made  beforehand,  everything  must  be  in 
readiness.  It  will  not  do  to  leave  the  preparations  for  pro- 
tection until  the  last  moment  and  then  expect  to  get  good 
results. 

One  of  the  most  necessary  and  essential  things  in 
frost  fighting  is  that  the  grower  should  have  some  means 
of  knowing  when  frosts  are  to  be  expected.  If  forewarned, 
everything  will  be  in  readiness,  and  he  will  be  on  the  alert. 
In  giving  warning  of  the  approach  of  cold  waves,  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  has  done  excellent  service. 
People  are  usually  warned  through  the  newspapers,  and  by 


338  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

telegrams  placed  in  the  postoffice  or  in  other  conspicuous 
places,  that  cold  is  to  be  expected.  Much  good  results 
from  these  forewarnings.  In  Florida,  knowledge  of  an 
approaching  cold  wave  is  also  given  by  the  railways.  They 
receive  news  of  an  expected  fall  in  temperature  and  give  no- 
tice to  those  along  the  railroad  line  by  special  whistles 
blown  at  intervals.  Thus  timely  warning  has  frequently 
been  given. 

But,  nevertheless,  the  grower  should  not  be  entirely 
dependent  upon  some  one  else  for  his  knowledge  of  what 
is  to  be  expected.  Sometimes  the  weather  bureau  fails  to 
report  the  full  extent  of  what  is  to  be  expected,  or  local 
conditions  may  cause  the  cold  to  be  more  severe  in  one 
locality  than  in  another.  Hence  the  citrus  grower  should 
rely  upon  himself  to  some  extent. 

THERMOMETERS. 

If  a  good  alarm  thermometer  can  be  secured  it  should 
by  all  means  be  purchased.  A  number  of  different  kinds 
have  been  placed  on  the  market,  but  unfortunately  they 
are  not  all  satisfactory,  and  usually  they  get  out  of  repair 
and  do  not  read  accurately  after  having  been  used  for  one 
or  two  seasons.  But  if  tested  from  time  to  time  by  compar- 
ing them  with  a  good  standard  thermometer,  they  may  be 
of  considerable  service. 

The  outfit  for  setting  up  an  alarm  thermometer  con- 
sists of  an  electric  bell,  a  battery,  a  thermometer,  and  suffi- 
cient wire  to  permit  the  latter  to  be  placed  in  a  position 
where  it  will  accurately  represent  the  temperature  in  the 
grove.  The  bell  should  be  placed  where  it  will  be  heard 
— just  outside  a  window  being  a  good  place.  From  this 
the  wires  should  lead  out  into  the  grove  where  they  are 
attached  to  the  thermometer. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  339 

Two  kinds  of  thermometers  are  in  use,  one  depending 
upon  the  contraction  of  a  column  of  mercury,  the  other 
depending  upon  the  contraction  of  a  piece  of  metal,  a  ther- 
mostat in  short.  In  fact,  an  ordinary  thermostat,  cost- 
ing about  two  dollars  and  a  half,  makes  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute for  a  thermometer.  When  the  mercury  falls 
or  the  metal  contracts  the  circuit  is  closed  and  the 
bell  rings,  warning  the  grower  of  approaching  danger. 


Fig-.  75.     Bolton  alarm  thermometers,  showing  thermometer, 
wires,  bell  and  battery. 

The  thermometer  must  be  adjusted  so  as  to  give  sufficient 
time  to  light  fires  or  for  covering  the  trees.  Ordinarily, 
if  set  or  fixed  at  30  degrees  Fahr.,  sufficient  warning  will 
be  given. 

INJURIOUS    TEMPERATURES. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  exactly  the  degree  of  cold 
at  which  the  different  parts,  trunk,  branches,  leaves  and 
fruit  will  be  injured.  The  danger  point  is  determined  by 
many  factors,  principally,  however,  by  the  state  of  dor- 
mancy of  the  tree,  the  variety,  the  duration  of  the  cold, 
and  by  the  weather  conditions  immediately  preceding  the 
cold  snap.  If  the  tree  has  already  been  partially  or  wholly 


340  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

defoliated  by  cold,  the  danger  of  injury  to  the  branches 
and  twigs  is  very  materially  increased. 

As  an  approximation,  it  may  be  said  that  green  fruit 
is  injured  at  29  degrees,  and  ripe  fruit  at  26  degrees.  Dor- 
mant sweet  oranges  have  been  known  to  stand  a  tempera- 
ture of  18  to  20  degrees  F.,  for  a  short  period.  This  ap- 
proaches the  limit.  A  large  Satsuma  tree  on  the  Experi- 
ment Station  grounds  at  Lake  City,  Fla.,  stood,  on  one  oc- 
casion, a  temperature  of  16.5  degrees  F.  without  loss  of 
foliage.  The  tree  was  dormant  at  the  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  sap  is  moving  in  the  trees  they  may  be 
severely  injured  or  killed  to  the  ground  even  at  much 
higher  temperatures.  One  of  the  most  critical  periods 
is  when  the  trees  are  in  bloom. 

EFFECTS      OF    COLD. 

On  the  Leaves.  The  effect  of  a  slight  amount  of  cold 
on  the  tree  is  to  curl  the  leaves  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
make  them  appear  as  though  suffering  from  lack  of  mois- 
ture. If  chilled  only  to  a  slight  extent,  they  may  regain 
their  normal  condition  and  still  remain  on  the  tree. 
Whether  leaves  thus  affected  will  serve  a  useful  purpose, 
on  the  tree,  as  long  as  those  which  have  not  been  so  affect- 
ed, is  doubtful.  At  any  rate  it  appears  that  their  useful- 
ness is  materially  impaired  for  one  season  at  least  and  it 
is  possible  that  the  life  of  such  leaves  is  shortened. 

If  still  further  frosted,  the  leaves  are  curled  and,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days,  drop  from  the  trees.  Usually  the 
upper  leaves  fall  before  the  lower,  some  of  the  latter  fre- 
quently remaining,  even  when  the  upper  portion  of  the  tree 
is  practically  defoliated,  as  shown  in  Fig.  76.  Defoliated 


FROST  PROTECTION. 


341 


trees  are  in  great  danger  of  severe  injury  from  a  second 
cold  wave.    The  blanket  of  thick  foliage  serves  as  a  very 
material     protection 
to  the  branches. 

On  the  Twigs. 
The  young,  tender 
growth  of  the  trees 
may  be  injured  to 
some  extent  by  cold 
sufficiently  intense 
to  defoliate  the  tree 
without  severe  in- 
jury being  done  to 
the  larger  branches. 
Much  depends,  of 
course,  upon  the  de- 
gree  of  dormancy. 
If  sufficiently  dor- 
mant, the  twigs  will 
resist  a  considerable 
degree  of  cold;  but, 
of  course,  they  are 
much  more  susceptible  to  injury  than  the  branches.  It 
may  be  stated  as  a  rule  that  the  resistant  power  of  a  branch 
becomes  less  and  less  as  it  decreases  in  size,  or  in  other 
words  varies  directly  with  the  diameter.  Large  branches 
are  injured  only  by  intense  cold,  and  the  top  of  a  tree  may 
be  very  decidedly  cut  back  by  frost  before  the  large 
branches  are  injured.  The  exact  amount  of  injury  to  the 
twigs  cannot  be  determined  until  sometime  after  the  frost 
occurred. 

On  the  Trunk.    No  portion  of  the  tree  can  withstand 
more  cold  than  the  trunk.    When  severely  frozen,  however. 


Fig1.  76.  Effects  of  a  slight  frost  on 
growing-  orange  tree.  Nearly  all  the 
leaves  have  dropped. 


342  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

it  is  killed  to  the  ground,  and  may  frequently  be  split  open 
if  the  cold  is  sufficiently  intense.  As  with  the  branches, 
its  resistant  power  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  diameter.  It 
does  not  appear  that  there  should  be  much  difference  in 
ability  to  withstand  cold,  between  a  citrus  trunk  four 
inches  in  diameter  and  one  eight  inches  in  diameter,  but 
such  is  the  case,  nevertheless.  It  may  be  that  larger  trees 
become  more  dormant  than  smaller  ones  and  their  sap  does 
not  respond  so  readily  to  elevations  of  temperature. 

The  weakest  spot,  in  the  whole  anatomy  of  a  budded 
or  grafted  citrus  tree,  is  the  point  of  union  of  stock  and 
cion.  This  point  should  be  protected  by  placing  about 
it  a  mound  of  earth  and,  moreover,  the  union  should  be  as 
close  to  the  ground  as  possible.  Protection  afforded  the 
trunk  by  a  dense  mass  of  foliage,  twigs  and  branches  is 
frequently  not  appreciated  to  its  fullest  extent.  The  warm 
air  is  held  to  some  extent,  and  the  cold  is  prevented  from 
penetrating  to  the  framework  of  the  tree.  Low-headed 
trees  are  preferable  to  high-headed  ones,  because  in  the 
former  case,  the  branches  serve  as  a  protection  to  the 
trunk.  High-headed  trees  should  not  be  grown  in  exposed 
regions. 

On  the  Fruit.  Up  to  the  present  time  no  statement 
has  been  made  as  to  whether  the  fruit  of  any  variety  of 
citrus  is  more  resistant  to  cold  than  others.  It  is  prob- 
able that  no  appreciable  difference  exists,  or  if  there  is  a 
difference,  it  is  too  slight  to  be  of  any  practical  value. 

Small,  whitish  specks,  1-2  millimeter  in  diameter, 
appear  in  the  tissues  of  the  fruit  after  it  has  been  slightly 
touched  by  frost.  These  are  evidently  due  to  chemical 
changes  and  are  probably  present  in  all  kinds  of  citrus 
fruits.  They  have  been  noted  in  lemons,  sweet  oranges, 
mandarin  oranges,  kumquats  and  pomelos.  Their  pres- 


FROST  PROTECTION.  343 

ence  may  be  regarded  as  an  indication  that  the  fruit  has 
been  frosted,  as  they  are  not  known  to  be  caused  in  any 
other  way. 

When  touched  by  frost  over  a  small  area,  the  frosted 
portion  of  the  rind  assumes  a  light  color.  Blue-mold 
soon  attacks  the  fruit  and  its  destruction  is  complete. 

Frequently   citrus  fruit  may  not  be  sufficiently   in- 


Photo   by  Ensminger. 

Fig.  77.  Oranges  dropped  by  the  effects  of  cold. 

jured  to  show  on  the  rind,  and  yet  the  rind  may  be  injured 
or  its  nature  changed  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  the  evap- 
oration of  the  juice.  After  a  time,  nothing  is  left  in  the 
fruit  except  a  chaffy  mass  of  juice-sacks.  On  the  surface 
the  fruit  may  appear  all  right,  yet  it  may  have  so  deterio- 
rated in  value  as  to  be  worthless. 

In  the  handling  and  marketing  of  frosted  fruit,  grow- 
ers cannot  be  too  careful.  If  it  is  suspected  that  fruit  has 
been  touched  by  frost,  it  should  not  be  shipped  until  it  is 
determined  absolutely  that  the  fruit  has  not  been  injured. 


344  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Even  when  only  slightly  affected,  the  juice  will  disappear, 
no  matter  whether  the  fruit  is  on  or  off  the  trees,  and  in 
such  cases  considerable  time  must  elapse  before  the  actual 
extent  of  the  frost  injury  can  be  determined. 

When  severely  frosted,  the  fruit  falls.  This  is  the  in- 
evitable consequence  of  severe  injury  to  the  twigs  and 
branches,  see  Fig.  77. 

CONDITION    WHEN    MOST    RESISTANT. 

Under  certain  conditions  citrus  trees  are  more  resist- 
ant to  frost  than  under  others.  The  presence  of  insects, 
diseased  conditions,  starvation,  and  the  degree  of  dor- 
mancy of  the  tree  all  bear  an  important  relation  to  the 
amount  of  cold  which  a  tree  can  successfully  withstand. 

The  Insect  Factor.  On  many  different  occasions  it 
has  been  noticed  that  trees  affected  by  white-fly  or  scale- 
insects  suffer  to  a  far  greater  degree  during  a  cold  period 
than  those  free  from  these  pests.  A  rough  estimate  of  the 
difference  in  favor  of  trees  free  from  insects  would  be  four 
or  five  degrees.  It  may  be  more,  it  certainly  is  not  less. 
The  insects  suck  the  sap  from  the  tree,  devitalize  it;  in 
consequence,  it  is  in  poor  condition  to  withstand  cold.  In 
view  of  this,  every  precaution  should  be  exercised  to 
keep  the  trees  free  from  insects. 

The  Disease  Factor.  Diseased  conditions  brought 
about  by  die-back,  foot-rot  or  other  disturbing  factors, 
either  of  a  physiological  or  a  fungous  nature,  reduce  the 
resistant  power  of  the  tree  as  much  as  attacks  of  insects 
do.  The  trees  must  be  kept  in  a  healthy,  growing  condi- 
tion. 

The  Food  Factor.  When  well  supplied  with  food,  so 
as  to  form  healthy,  vigorous  shoots  and  well-developed 


FROST  PROTECTION.  345 

leaves,  citrus  trees  are  in  a  much  better  condition  to  with- 
stand cold  than  when  they  are  starved,  or  only  poorly 
supplied  with  food.  A  sufficient  supply  of  nitrogen  to 
give  a  healthy,  dark  green  color  is  essential.  The  trees 
must  not  be  over-stimulated,  however,  else  the  sappy,  im- 
mature wood  formed,  will  suffer  severely ;  but  a  sufficient 
supply  of  well-balanced  food  should  be  available  to  keep 
the  trees  in  a  healthy  condition.  A  starved  condition  is 
analogous  to  a  diseased  state.  Nitrogen  must  not  be  sup- 
plied in  excess  of  other  elements,  but  it  will  prove  to  be 
poor  policy  to  reduce  the  amount,  in  the  hope  of  keeping 
the  tree  dormant,  so  as  to  interfere  with  the  normal  devel- 
opment of  the  branches  and  leaves. 

Dormancy  as  a  Factor.  Unfortunately,  the  citrus  tree 
is  not  distinctly  periodic  in  its  growth.  It  responds  readily 
to  short  periods  of  warm  weather ;  the  sap  starts  to  flow ; 
the  buds  commence  to  swell.  In  this  condition  it  may  be 
severely  injured  by  a  comparatively  high  temperature. 
In  a  perfectly  dormant  condition,  citrus  trees  will  with- 
stand a  very  considerable  degree  of  cold.  How  many  de- 
grees more  of  cold  a  tree  will  stand  when  dormant,  than 
when  not  dormant,  cannot  be  definitely  stated,  but  the 
difference  is  very  appreciable.  Practices  or  treatment  of 
the  trees  having  a  tendency  to  start  growth  during  the 
danger  period,  should  be  promptly  discontinued.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned,  heavy  pruning  and  fertilizing 
and  tilling  the  soil  too  early. 

FERTILIZERS  AND  CULTIVATION   IN   RELATION  TO 
DORMANCY. 

Heavy  applications  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  followed 
by  cultivation  have  a  tendency  to  start  growth  in  the  trees. 
As  a  general  rule  cultivation  should  not  be  commenced 


346  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

in  spring  until  all  danger  of  frost  injury  is  passed.  It  is 
preferable  that  the  bulk  of  the  nitrogen  applied  in  the  fer- 
tilizer should  be  given  early  in  spring  and  that  the 
amounts  be  gradually  lessened  in  each  successive  applica- 
tion as  the  season  progresses. 

Cultivation  should  not  be  continued  late  into  the  sea- 
son as  it  has  a  tendency  to  prolong  the  period  of  growth. 
Cutting  the  surface  soil  with  a  cutaway  harrow  or  a  shal- 
low plowing  after  the  cessation  of  growth,  will  not  affect 
the  trees  to  any  appreciable  extent  but  it  must  be  car- 
ried too  far. 

Liberal  amounts  of  potash  have  a  decided  effect  on 
hardening  and  maturing  the  new  growth,  and  this  feature 
should  not  be  overlooked  in  fertilizing. 

Effects  of  the  Stock  on  the  Hardiness  of  the  Top. 
That  there  exists  a  mutual  inter-relation  between  the 
stock  and  cion,  cannot  be  doubted.  A  hardy  stock  has, 
in  many  cases,  a  marked  influence  on  the  power  of  the  cion 
to  withstand  cold  without  injury. 

As  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  stocks,  they  vary 
considerably  in  their  resistance  to  cold.  In  order  of  frost- 
resistance  they  may  be  arranged  as  follows:  trifoliate 
orange,  sour  (Bigarade)  orange,  sweet  orange,  pomelo 
and  rough  lemon.  It  is  probably  not  too  much  to  say  that 
other  things  being  equal,  the  hardiness  of  the  tops  worked 
on  these  stocks  will  stand  in  the  same  order. 

The  gain  in  many  cases  may  be  scarcely  appreciable, 
but  in  others  it  is  well  marked.  In  colder  regions,  the 
distinct  superiority  of  sour  (Bigarade)  orange  over  rough 
lemon  is  quite  noticeable,  even  on  young  trees,  while  Citrus 
trifoliata  imparts  its  hardiness  to  the  top  worked  upon  it 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  a  very  decided  difference 
in  its  favor. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  347 

In  cold  regions  where  soil  conditions  are  suitable, 
the  hardier  stocks  should  always  be  given  the  preference. 
A  slight  gain  in  hardiness,  due  to  the  influence  of  the 
stock  on  the  cion,  may  frequently  be  as  effective  as  a  de- 
cided gain. 

HARDY    VARIETIES. 

A  decidedly  hardy  stock  we  already  have.  If  a  va- 
riety could  be  secured,  equally  as  hardy,  total  immunity 
from  frost  would  be  secured  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
citrus  regions.  The  attempt  to  secure  such  a  variety  has 
been  made  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Webber.  Some  measure  of  suc- 
cess has  been  attained  and  further  results  may  be  expected 
from  this  work. 

But,  while  we  may  look  to  the  final  outcome  of  these 
investigations  and  experiments  with  some  degree  of  hope, 
we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  for  many,  many 
years  to  come,  the  citrus  growers  must  depend  upon  the 
varieties  we  now  have  for  the  continued  prosperity  of  their 
industry. 

Some  varieties  of  citrus  fruits,  fortunately,  are  con- 
siderably hardier  than  others.  Satsuma  is  the  hardiest 
of  the  mandarin  group,  and  the  hardiest  known  large- 
fruited,  edible  citrus.  Duncan  is  the  hardiest  of  the  pom- 
elos, Tresca  being  one  of  the  most  tender.  Duncan  is 
equally  hardy  with  most  of  the  sweet  oranges,  in  fact, 
there  appears  to  be  but  little  difference  between  them. 
The  Marumi  kumquat  is  decidedly  hardier  than  Nagami. 
In  the  lemon  group,  but  little  opportunity  has  been  af- 
forded for  observation.  Slight  differences  probably  exist. 
Villafranca  is  apparently  quite  hardy.  Of  the  sweet  or- 
anges, Jaffa  and  Ruby  are  hardier  than  some  others, 
though  a  number  of  others  are  quite  as  hardy  as  they  are. 


348  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

In  severe  freezes,  slight  differences  in  resistance  to 
cold  disappear  entirely,  but  frequently  they  are  distinctly 
noticeable. 

PROTECTING    WITH    EARTH. 

Banking  to  Save  the  Trunks.  No  method  of  protect- 
ing the  trunks  of  citrus  trees  from  cold  is  more  efficacious 
than  banking.  Never  yet  has  a  temperature  sufficiently 
low  to  injure  the  trunk  of  a  tree  through  a  mound  of  earth 
been  reached  in  any  of  the  citrus  districts,  and  implicit 
confidence  can  be  placed  in  this  method  for  protecting 
the  parts  covered. 

The  banks  should  be  placed  about  the  trees  early  in 
November.  In  Northern  Florida,  for  instance,  severe 
frost  is  likely  to  occur  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the 
month.  If  the  tree  trunks  have  been  slightly  touched  by 
frost  before  the  banks  are  placed  about  them,  very  unsatis- 
factory results  are  obtained.  The  bark  rots  during  the 
winter  if  it  has  been  slightly  frosted  and  the  trees  are 
frequently  killed  outright  in  consequence,  when  they 
might  otherwise  survive,  provided,  of  course,  that  the 
winter  is  mild.  The  best  plan  is  to  place  the  banks  about 
the  trees  sometime  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  week 
in  November. 

The  earth  should  be  heaped  well  up  about  the  trunk 
so  as  to  protect  as  much  of  it  as  possible.  Young  trees 
should  not  be  totally  covered  however,  but  a  considerable 
portion  should  be  left  exposed.  If  they  are  banked  too 
high,  respiration  will  be  prevented  and  death  of  the  trunk 
and  branches  will  follow.  In  budded  trees  the  part  most 
susceptible  to  the  effects  of  cold  is  the  point  of  union 
between  stock  and  cion.  This  point  should  be  close  to  the 
ground  and  the  earth  should  be  well  banked  about  it  so  as 


FROST  PROTECTION. 


349 


to  cover  and  protect  it.  After  the  earth  has  been  placed 
about  the  trees,  it  usually  settles  somewhat  or  is  washed 
down  by  the  rain.  For  this  reason  it  is  usually  best  to 
go  over  the  work  three  or  four  weeks  afterward  and  place 
more  earth  about  the  tree. 

All  grass  and  weeds  should  be  cleaned  away  from 
the  trees  and  nothing  but  fresh,  clean  soil  should  be  used 
in  banking.  If  weeds  and  grass  are  placed  in  contact  with 


Fig.  78.  Citrus  trees  banked  to  protect  the  trunks  from  frost. 

the  trunks,  wood-lice  too  frequently  cause  considerable 
damage.  They  commence  work  first  in  the  decaying  vege- 
tation and  then  transfer  their  attentions  to  the  trunk. 
One  of  the  best  ways  to  secure  fresh,  clean  earth,  free 
from  organic  matter,  is  to  remove  the  weeds  and  four  or 
five  inches  of  surface  soil  from  an  area  of  two  square  feet 
or  so,  then  dig  a  hole  deep  enough  to  supply  sufficient 
earth  for  the  tree.  In  spring  the  earth  can  be  thrown 


350  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

back  into  the  hole.  If  the  ground  where  the  trees  stand  is 
low  hammock,  containing  a  great  deal  of  humus  and  more 
or  less  decayed  vegetable  matter,  it  is  unsafe  to  place  the 
soil  about  the  trees.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  advisable 
to  haul  clean  earth  with  which  to  bank  the  trees. 

In  spring,  usually  about  the  end  of  March,  or  as  soon 
as  danger  of  damage  from  cold  is  past,  the  banks  should 
be  removed  from  about  the  trees.  By  no  means  should 
they  be  left  about  the  trees  throughout  the  summer,  as 
mal-di-goma  may  attack  the  trunk  above  the  point  of 
union  of  stock  and  cion. 

Protecting  the  Whole  Tree  With  Earth.  While  this 
method  of  protection  can  be  applied  only  to  small  trees, 
still  it  is  of  considerable  importance,  and  the  following 
experiments  carried  out  by  J.  Y.  McKinney,  *  of  Candler, 
Fla.,  are  very  interesting.  "To  test  this  form  of  protec- 
tion, we  had  about  thirty  young  trees  covered  entirely 
over  with  sand.  Ten  of  these  were  covered  on  December 
15,  and  opened  up  March  21.  These  died  back  to  within 
three  inches  of  the  bud  union.  The  other  twenty  were 
opened  at  different  times  with  the  following  results: 
Those  covered  four  weeks  were  but  little  damaged.  Those 
covered  six  weeks  lost  all  their  foliage  and  were  otherwise 
so  devitalized  that  they  were  slow  in  recovering.  Some 
of  my  neighbors,  however,  banked  as  high  as  six  and  seven 
feet  and  left  the  banks  for  from  five  to  seven  weeks,  aside 
from  losing  their  leaves,  the  trees  are  but  little  damaged. 

From  other  sources  on  this  point  I  get  varying  re- 
sults, so  that  in  forming  judgment  on  this  form  of  pro- 
tection, it  would  be  said  there  is  great  risk  attending  it, 
so  much  so,  indeed,  that  if  we  place  any  financial  value 


Fla.    State   Hort.    Report   1900,    29-30.      190. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  351 

on  young  trees  we  must  exclude  this  expedient  from  a  plan 
of  orange  culture  on  a  sound  basis. 

The  next  device,  an  original  one,  we  shall  term  the 
ventilated  sand  case.  We  had  150  fine  young  buds,  four  to 
six  feet  high,  placed  under  this  treatment.  The  trees  were 
first  tied  up  into  as  small  a  space  as  practical  by  means 
of  No.  1$  galvanized  wire;  a  case  was  then  placed  close 
around  the  tree.  Most  of  these  inner  cases  were  of  thin 
boards — some  few,  even,  of  paper.  A  second  case  was  then 
made  about  three  inches  from  the  first;  this  outer  case 
was  made  of  small  boards  placed  laterally  between  trough- 
like  corner  pieces.  The  space  between  the  two  cases  was 
packed  with  sand.  At  the  bottom  a  ventilating  box  ex- 
tended from  the  outside  into  the  tree.  This  vent  and  the 
top  were  closed  and  covered  with  sand  during  the  cold- 
wave  period  only.  The  labor  of  putting  up  this  device  and 
attending  to  it  during  the  winter  and  clearing  it  away  in 
the  spring  cost  us  20  cents  per  tree.  The  lumber  used  was 
odds  and  ends  from  our  mill  and  did  not  figure  in  the  ex- 
pense. 

The  trees  were  placed  in  these  cases  during  the  week 
of  December  15,  and  so  remained  until  the  week  of  March 
21,  with  the  following  results :  A  number  came  out  with- 
out loss  of  leaves  and  in  excellent  condition.  Others  were 
defoliated  on  the  lower  branches,  the  top  branches  retain- 
ing their  leaves.  Some  were  entirely  defoliated,  but  the 
wood  was  in  good  condition  and  quickly  put  on  leaves 
when  the  cases  were  removed.  On  the  whole,  this  plan 
may  be  regarded  as  a  safe  one,  and  if  the  vents  are  large 
enough  there  will  be  no  serious  risk  attending  it  from 
either  suffocation  or  cold.  Its  practical  use,  however. 
is  limited  to  small  trees." 


352  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

FIRES. 

The  protection  of  citrus  trees  by  means  of  open  fires 
has  been  successfully  accomplished  both  in  Florida  and 
California.  The  materials  most  commonly  used  are 
coal  and  oil  in  California,  and  wood  in  Florida. 

Wood  Fires.  In  Florida,  the  wood  is  probably  the 
cheapest  material  at  the  present  time.  Wood  is  abundant, 
easily  and  cheaply  secured,  and  in  consequence  will  be 
most  commonly  used  for  some  time  to  come.  The  pro- 
tection of  an  acre  (80-100)  of  orange  trees  with  wood  fires 
in  Florida,  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  ten  to 
fifteen  dollars  per  acre  per  year.  The  total  cost  in  any 
given  winter  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  number  of 
times  the  fires  have  to  be  lighted.  Six  or  seven  is  about  the 
usual  number. 

There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  kind  of  wood 
used  by  different  growers.  In  size  it  varies  all  the  way 
from  eighteen-inch  stove  wood  to  logs  six  or  eight  feet 
long  and  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  Some 
have  kept  the  stumps  and  roots,  which  are  usually  burned 
in  clearing  the  land,  for  use  in  firing.  In  the  more  ex- 
posed regions,  as  in  North  Florida,  for  instance,  large 
wood  should  be  given  the  preference;  while  farther  south, 
smaller  fires,  one  for  each  tree  may  answer  as  well.  All 
things  considered,  however,  cordwood  is  probably  the 
most  convenient. 

Plenty  of  wood  should  be  provided  for  immediate  use 
and  an  ample  reserve  supply  should  be  close  at  hand. 
When  large  fires  are  used,  they  should  be  placed  close 
together  around  the  grove.  Freezes  are  usually  accom- 
panied by  high  winds.  The  practice  in  Florida  has  often 
been  to  make  ample  provision  for  protection  on  the  north 


FROST  PROTECTION. 


353 


and  west  sides,  but  it  has  often  been  noted  that 
before  the  cold  passes  over  the  wind  blows  from  every 
point  of  the  compass.  For  this  reason  wood  should  be 
scattered,  and  provision  made  for  firing  all  around  the 
grove. 

Throughout  the  grove,  one  large  fire  in  every  square 
of  four  trees  will  usually  be  sufficient.  Sufficient  wood 
must  be  provided  to  keep  the  fire  going  for  seven  or  eight 


Fig.  79.     Wood  in  place,  ready  for  Hring. — North  Florida.     The  piles 

are  torn  down  and  used  gradually.    Note  the  large  size  of  the 

wood.      See   also    plate    XVIII. 

hours  at  least.     In  less  exposed  regions,  one  small  fire 
should  be  provided  for  each  tree. 

The  temperature  at  which  the  fires  must  be  started 
depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  trees,  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  temperature  is  falling.  Ordinarily,  the 
mercury  should  not  be  allowed  to  drop  much  below  25  or 
26  degrees  F.,  though  much  will  depend  upon  how  rapidly 
the  temperature  is  going  down. 

13 


354 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


Everything  should  be  in  readiness  for  building  the 
fires.  Sufficient  kindling  should  be  distributed.  Nothing 
is  better  for  starting  the  fires  than  the  waste  (chips  cov- 
ered with  rosin),  obtained  from  the  turpentine  stills, 
but  in  addition  kerosene  or  crude  petroleum  should  be 
provided.  Kain  frequently  accompanies  the  cold,  in  which 
case  it  is  difficult  to  get  the  fires  started. 


Fig1.  80.     Orange  trees  on  the  Kinney  place  at  Pierson,  Fla.,  planted 
in  1888  and  successfully  protected  in  '94-'95  and 
'99    with    wood    fires. 

Have  the  wood  piled  together,  have  one  man  to  throw 
on  a  gill  or  so  of  kerosene,  let  another  follow  to 
start  the  fires,  followed  by  a  third  to  see  that  they  burn 
well,  and  others  to  provide  Avood  arid  keep  the  fires  replen- 
ished. Everything  must  be  done  systematically  and  with- 
out delay. 

A  good  torch  or  a  number  of  them  should  be  pro- 
vided for  lighting  the  fires.  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart  has  an  excel- 
lent one  which  he  uses  for  the  purpose.  It  consists  of  a 


FROST  PROTECTION.  355 

long,  hollow,  brass  cylinder,  fitted  with  a  piece  of  round 
wick  at  the  end.  The  cylinder  is  filled  with  kerosene. 

In  Florida  the  temperature  in  the  fired  area  of  grove 
has  been  raised  as  much  as  twelve  degrees  above  that  of 
the  surrounding  area.  Fig.  80  shows  sweet  orange  trees 
at  Pierson,  Fla.,  planted  in  1888,  and  never  touched  by 
frost.  They  were  protected  by  open  fires,  while  adjoining 
groves  not  so  protected  were  killed  to  the  ground  in  1895, 
and  again  in  1899.  This  shows  what  may  be  done.  It 
was  probably  in  this  grove  that  open  wood  fires  were  first 
used  in  Florida  for  the  protection  of  citrus  trees. 

Coal  and  Oil.  As  noted  above,  these  two  materials  have 
been  used  to  a  greater  extent  in  California  than  in  Florida, 
though  they  have  been  used  in  the  latter  State  as  well. 

The  comparative  costs  of  the  two  materials  given,  as 
the  results  of  experiments  in  California  *  are  as  follows : 

Wire  coal  baskets,  each 7  1-2  to  8  cents. 

Ten  pounds  coal  (4  hours) 5  cents. 


Total  cost 13  cents. 

Oil  pots   (3  gals.) ..    ..25  to  30  cents. 

Two  gallons  Oil.7  T. .6  cents. 

Wicks  (if  used) 3  cents. 


Total  cost 34  to  39  cents. 

The  cost  is  in  favor  of  the  baskets,  while  the  oil  was 
more  readily  ignited,  but  opinions  differ  as  to  the  amount 
of  heat  given  off. 

The  difficulty  of  readily  igniting  the  coal  might  be 
obviated  in  some  such  way  as  that  adopted  by  Mr.  James 


*  California  Cultivator,  XIX,  No.  17,  257  O.     1902. 


356  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

(1)  of  the  Uplands  Lemon  Exchange,  Cal.  His  method 
is 'as  follows:  "Cover  bottom  of  basket  with  dry  euca- 
lyptus or  palm  leaves,  cut  into  four-inch  lengths;  make  a 
mixture  of  melted  rosin,  not  above  85  degrees  tempera- 
ture, and  kerosene,  mixed  to  consistency  of  molasses — 
three  quarters  kerosene,  one  quarter  rosin;  sprinkle  over 
leaves.  Dip  a  few  short  kindlings  into  this  and  place 
in  basket,  followed  by  untreated  kindling,  then  fill  with 
coal,  small  lumps  at  bottom,  coarse  above,  "cone"  up  on 
the  top.  For  protection  against  rain,  cover  with  at  least 
four  thicknesses  of  newspaper."  In  Florida,  the  waste 
from  the  turpentine  stills  might  be  secured  for  kindling 
or  "fat"  pine  might  be  provided. 

The  experience  of  Mr.  C.  C.  Teague,  (2)  of  Limoniera, 
Cal.,  in  fighting  frost  with  coal  baskets  is  well  worth  re- 
producing here: 

"We  found  that  the  self-registering  thermometers 
which  we  had  were  utterly  unreliable  as  a  guide,  and  that 
if  we  had  been  governed  by  them  and  had  followed  the  ad- 
vice of  all  our  authorities  on  frost  protection,  we  would 
have  burned  up  coal  early  in  the  night  when  it  was  not 
necessary,  and  our  grove  would  have  been  frozen  in  the 
earlier,  colder  hours  of  the  morning.  When  our  ther- 
mometer registered  cold  so  early  in  the  evening,  we  were 
in  a  quandary  as  to  what  to  do.  We  feared  if  we  refrained 
from  lighting  too  long  we  would  be  injured,  and  on  the 
other  hand  if  we  lighted  early  our  coal  would  not  last. 
While  worrying  over  this,  the  thought  occurred  to  us  to 
put  out  shallow  pans  with  about  an  inch  of  water  in  them, 
reasoning  that  the  latent  heat  in  the  trees  and  fruit  would 


1.  L.  C. 

2.  L.    C.    264. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  357 

keep  the  juice  in  the  fruit  from  congealing  and  therefore 
without  injury  until  the  water  in  the  pan  began  freezing 
over.  Developments  proved  that  we  were  right,  as  I  shall 
attempt  to  demonstrate  to  you.  Our  experience  on  both 
our  coldest  nights,  the  llth  and  12th,  was  almost  identi- 
cal, and  I  have  selected  the  12th,  which  was  the  colder, 
and  the  following  is  the  record  of  our  thermometers  on 
that  night: 

7  p.  m 32  degrees. 

8  p.  m 28  degrees. 

9  p.  m.   . 26  degrees. 

10  p.  m 24  degrees. 

11  p.  m 22  degrees. 

11:30  p.  m 21  degrees. 

"At  this  time  the  water  in  the  pans  began  freezing 
over  and  we  began  lighting  our  baskets.  Our  men  were 
divided  into  squads,  and  each  squad  being  in  charge  of  a 
competent  man.  Our  reason  for  this  was  that  it  would 
not  be  economical  to  have  a  large  crew  of  men  working 
together,  as  they  would  be  obliged  to  do  a  great  deal  of 
unnecessary  walking.  In  other  words,  a  crew  of  forty 
men  lighting  on  forty  rows  would  oblige  the  man  on  the 
first  row  to  walk  across  the  end  of  forty  rows  to  reach  the 
forty-first,  or  his  next  row.  On  the  night  in  question 
we  had  forty  men  lighting,  and  it  took  from  one  and  a 
half  to  two  hours  to  light  2500,  or  one-half  the  baskets. 
At  12  o'clock,  midnight,  before  the  baskets  were  well 
under  way,  and  giving  off  a  good  heat,  the  thermometer 
registered  20  degrees;  at  1:00  o'clock  22  degrees;  at  1:30 
22  degrees.  (At  this  time  we  began  lighting  the  other 


358  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

half  of  our  baskets)  ;  2:00  o'clock  22  degrees;  3:00  o'clock 
24  degrees ;  4 :00  o'clock  26  degrees ;  and  the  thermometer 
did  not  register  26  degrees  after  this  time. 

"Please  note  that  the  thermometer  registered  below 
28  degrees  for  three  and  one-half  hours  before  the  pan 
of  water  was  frozen  over,  and  for  four  hours  after  the 
temperature  was  aft'ected  by  our  fires.  Also  that  the  drop 
in  temperature  up  to  the  lighting  had  been  about  2  de- 
grees per  hour,  which  was  checked  and  forced  up,  until, 
when  all  our  fires  were  going,  it  reached  26  degrees,  and 
did  not  again  get  below  this,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  temperature  usually  continues  falling  until  sun- 
rise unless  a  breeze  springs  up,  which  in  this  case  did 
not  occur.  Notwithstanding  this,  however,  our  thermom 
eters  registered  below  28  degrees  for  ten  hours  without 
injury  to  our  trees  and  lemons.  I  cannot  account  for  this, 
except  that  possibly  after  we  lighted  our  fires,  the  heat 
and  smoke  rising  from  them  and  hanging  over  the  grove 
acted  as  a  sort  of  blanket,  preventing  the  cold  air  from 
settling.  Our  thermometers  are  hung  on  posts  about 
three  feet  from  the  ground,  and  it  has  been  suggested  to 
me  as  an  explanation  of  the  low  temperature  shown  by 
the  thermometers  resulting  in  no  injury,  that  the  heat  ra- 
diating from  the  baskets  would  radiate  in  streaks,  and 
that  the  whole  body  of  cold  air  would  not  necessarily 
become  heated,  and  the  thermometers  being  protected 
by  the  post  and  boxing,  would  not  be  sensitive  to  the  heat 
radiation,  and  would  therefore  read  colder  than  the  heat 
was  in  reality.  I  have  since  regretted  that  I  did  not  take 
the  temperature  ten  and  twelve  feet  from  the  ground. 

"In  a  few  of  the  coldest  spots  in  our  grove,  there  is  a 
slight  singeing  of  the  tenderest  leaves,  but  nothing  of  any 
consequence.  The  portion  of  the  grove  where  this  singeing 


FROST  PROTECTION.  359 

is  most  in  evidence  is  a  small  portion  where  I  have  before 
mentioned,  and  which  had  only  one  coal  basket  to  five 
trees. 

"In  conclusion,  I  will  say  that  after  two  years'  careful 
experience  with  coal  baskets,  I  am  more  than  ever  con- 
vinced that  by  careful,  intelligent  handling,  we  can  save 
our  groves  and  fruit  during  our  most  severe  freezes.  We 
concluded  with  37  baskets  to  the  acre,  we  were  running 
too  close  to  the  danger  line,  and  have  since  doubled  our 
supply,  and  I  would  recommend  that  75  to  the  acre  be 
used  in  groves  that  are  subject  to  frost  visitation.  It  is 
not  probable  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  light  all  only  in 


Fig.  81.     Firing  a  California  grove,  using  crude  petroleum  in 
Froude's  oil   pots. 

extreme  cases,  but  the  extra  insurance  is  well  worth  the 
outlay.  It  is  also  certain  that  a  small  operator  would  not 
get  nearly  as  good  results  and  should  therefore  have  more 
baskets  to  the  acre. 

"My  last  word  is,  do  not  forget  the  importance  of 
knowing  when  to  begin  lighting.  And  if  you  will  re- 
member the  pan  of  water  it  will  save  your  nerves." 

The  best,  as  well  as  the  most  commonly  used  recep- 
tacle for  firing  with  crude  petroleum,  is  the  Froude  crude 
petroleum  pot.  This  has  given  good  satisfaction  in  many 
instances  in  California.  Fig.  81  illustrates  this  pot  in  use 
in  protecting  a  citrus  grove  in  California. 


360  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

WALLS    AND    FIRES. 

Great  difficulty  may  be  encountered  in  protecting 
citrus  trees  by  means  of  open  fires,  because  it  so  frequent- 
ly happens  that  freezes  are  accompanied  by  high  winds, 
rain  and  sleet.  The  wind  is  often  so  strong  as  to  extin- 
guish the  fires  and  even  though  this  is  not  done,  the  heat 
is  blown  away.  It  has  been  noted  that  while  the  temper- 
ature was  sufficiently  high  on  the  side  of  the  tree  nearest 
the  fire,  on  the  opposite  side  the  thermometer  registered 
several  degrees  below  freezing. 

To  overcome  this  undersirable  condition  of  things, 
triangular  or  circular  walls  have  been  used  in  many 
cases  with  excellent  results.  Sometimes  these  are  mov- 
able, at  other  times  they  are  built  stationary  on  the  north 
and  west  sides  of  the  trees.  The  wind  frequently  shifts 
its  direction,  making  the  movable  ones  somewhat  more 
desirable.  A  fire  can  be  placed  on  the  opposite  side  from 
the  triangle  with  very  effective  results.  Wood,  oil  or  coal 
may  be  used. 

Wind-breaks  and  Water  Protection.  These  have 
been  fully  discussed  in  a  former  chapter,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred.  In  many  respects,  the  wind-break, 
either  artificial  or  natural,  may  serve  the  same  purpose 
as  a  wall  on  the  northwest  sides  of  the  trees.  The  wind- 
break stops  the  force  of  the  driving  wind  and  prevents 
the  dissemination  of  the  heat.  In  many  cases,  growers, 
in  Florida,  finding  that  their  sheds  were  not  entirely 
satisfactory,  have  removed  the  covering,  leaving  the  walls 
still  standing.  These  have  acted  as  very  efficient  checks 
to  the  wind. 

Protection  by  irrigation  or  by  applying  water  to  the 
ground  and  trees  as  a  spray  may,  in  certain  cases,  be 


FROST  PROTECTION.  361 

used  to  advantage.  If  the  water  has  a  constant  temper- 
ature of  60  to  70  degrees  F.,  much  can  be  accomplished, 
provided  sufficient  of  it  is  available,  and  can  be  readily 
applied. 

The  ameliorating  influence  of  adjoining  bodies  of 
water  should  not  be  overlooked,  and,  whenever  possible, 
the  grove  should  be  so  located  as  to  receive  the  beneficial 
influence  of  the  heat  given  off  slowly  by  a  body  of  water. 
The  water  becomes  heated  during  the  day.  It  parts  with 
its  heat  more  slowly  than  the  land,  during  the  night,  and 
its  influence  is  considerable. 

TENT    PROTECTION. 

Protection  of  citrus  trees  by  means  of  tents  has  been 
quite  successful. 

Various  kinds  of  tents  and  structures  working  on  the 
same  principle  have  been  tried  from  time  to  time.  Trees 
have  been  boxed,  or  covered  over  with  boards  or  veneer, 
but  more  usually  cloth  of  some  kind  has  been  used. 

The  two  styles  of  tents  which  have  been  most  com- 
monly used  in  Florida  are  shown  in  Plate  XXII,  Figs.  A 
and  B.  The  first  known  as  MacFarland's  tent,  consists 
of  three  posts,  supporting  a  cypress  hoop  surrounding  the 
tree.  The  tent  itself  is  shown  at  the  left,  drawn  together 
about  the  derrick-like  frame.  It  is  strengthened  from  top 
to  bottom  by  means  of  slats  which  project  below  the  bot 
torn  of  the  cloth  and  are  shoved  into  the  ground  to  keep 
the  tent  more  securely  in  place.  On  the  approach  of  cold 
weather,  the  tent  is  drawn  around  the  framework,  closed 
up  and  the  supporting  slats  shoved  into  the  ground. 

Mr.  E.  O.  Painter,  of  the  E.  O.  Painter  Fertilizer 
Company,  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  was  the  originator  of  the 
second  style  of  tent.  It  consists  of  four  posts  set  in  the 


Plate  XXII. 


Figr.  A.     Protection  by  Tents.     MacFarland's  Tent,  open  and  closed 


.   B,      Protection  by  Tents.      Painter's   Tent,   open   and   closed. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  363 

ground,  at  the  corners  of  a  rectangle,  enclosing  the  tree. 
Around  these  posts  good,  stout  cloth  is  stretched  and  at- 
tached to  a  frame  at  the  bottom.  The  top  of  the  struc- 
ture is  covered,  as  illustrated  on  the  right,  with  a  frame 
covered  with  the  same  cloth.  This  cover  is  removed  and 
the  cloth  sides  lifted  up  in  opening  the  tent. 

Tents  afford  an  excellent  method  for  protecting  a 
few  trees.  Citrus  trees  might  be  grown  as  ornamental 
trees  in  gardens  about  the  home,  far  outside  the  regions 
where  they  are  cultivated  commercially,  if  tents  are  used 
to  protect  them.  The  objection  to  their  use  in  commercial 
groves,  however,  is  that  they  are  too  costly,  and  have  to 
be  enlarged  too  frequently.  For  protecting  young  trees, 
they  have  many  desirable  features,  and  are  probably 
sufficiently  economical. 

Tents  alone  will  not  protect  the  trees.  In  fact,  it  may 
be  colder  inside  the  tent  than  outside.  The  tent  must  be 
warmed  up,  for  which  purpose  some  sort  of  kerosene  lamp 
is  usually  most  serviceable.  An  ordinary  lantern  may  be 
used  or  a  lamp  made  from  a  can  with  a  burner  attached 
may  suffice. 

SHEDS. 

Both  in  Florida  and  California,  sheds  have  been 
erected  to  protect  citrus  trees  from  cold.  In  some  cases 
these  have  proved  quite  satisfactory,  in  others  they  have 
not.  If  properly  managed,  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
shed  should  not  prove  satisfactory.  Provision  must  be 
made  for  allowing  the  entrance  of  plenty  of  light  and  air, 
a  shed  which  may  be  opened  or  closed  in  a  short  time  is 
the  ideal.  The  shed  should  be  left  open  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, closing  it  only  on  the  approach  of  severe  cold.  The 
methods  of  cultivation  and  fertilizing  must  be  changed. 


364  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

Moisture  is  present  in  the  soil  in  greater  abundance  un- 
der the  shed  than  outside.  Die-back  may  result  from  the 
same  methods  of  cultivation  as  might  be  used  with  per- 
fectly satisfactory  results  outside.  Less  cultivation 
should  be  given  shedded  groves  and  chemical  fertilizers 
only  should  be  used. 

All  things  considered,  a  shed  constructed  after  the 
model  .  of  Mr.  Stevens,  manager  of  the  J.  B.  Stetson 
groves,  at  DeLand,  Fla.,  is  probably  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. A  shed  of  this  pattern,  erected  by  G.  L.  Taber,  of 
Glen  St.  Mary,  Fla.,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  healed 
in  nursery  stock,  is  illustrated  in  Plate  XXIII.  The  posts 
are  four  by  four,  the  framework  is  made  of  inch  boards, 
built  together  like  angle  iron.  An  ample  supply  of  braces 
is  provided  and  the  structure  is  very  substantial.  The 
cover  and  walls  are  made  in  panels.  These  are  made  of 
one-half-inch  boards,  four  feet  long,  nailed  between 
three  one-inch  strips  which  run  lengthwise  of  the  panel, 
The  panels  may  be  made  of  any  desired  lengths,  sixteen 
feet  being  found  quite  desirable.  They  must,  however, 
be  of  such  a  length  as  to  lap  on  the  cross  beams  of  the 
roof.  When  it  is  desired  to  open  up  the  shed,  the  pan- 
els of  the  roof  are  piled  on  top  of  one  another  on  the 
framework.  If  so  desired,  the  side-walls  and  all  the 
covering  may  be  removed,  leaving  nothing  but  the  frame- 
work. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
tents,  the  shed  alone  will  not  protect  the  trees.  Fires 
must  be  provided  with  which  to  elevate  the  temperature; 
either  wood,  coal  or  oil  may  be  used. 


Plate  XXIII. 


Fig.   A.      Cover   of   Shed. 


Fig-.   B.      Interior   view,    showing   construction. 
Shed  erected  by  G.  L..  Taber,  Glen  Saint  Mary    Fla. 


366  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

FLORIDA    SHEDS. 

In  the  Florida  State  Horticultural  Report  for  1903, 
an  excellent  report  on  the  condition  of  the  shedded 
groves  in  Florida  is  given  by  Mr.  E.  O.  Painter.  The  de- 
scriptions of  the  protection  of  the  Mead  grove  at  Oviedo, 
Fla.,  the  Swift  grove  at  Pomona,  Fla.,  the  Haw  Creek 
grove  at  Crescent  City,  Fla.,  the  Wetumpka  grove  at 
Hastings,  Fla.,  and  the  Barney  shed  (J.  A.  Stevens)  at 
Citra,  Fla.,  are  reproduced  here. 

THE  MEAD  GROVE  AT  OVIEDO. 

The  cloth  is  twelve  feet  above  the  ground,  and  has 
now  been  made  movable  by  ropes  and  pulleys,  so  as  to 
let  in  the  sunlight  whenever  it  is  not  too  cold. 

The  trees  are  planted  5x20,  the  intention  being  that 
each  row  shall  be  practically  one  tree  250  feet  long.  Have 
used  10,000  pounds  of  fertilizer  on  one  acre  in  the  past 
two  years,  using  one  pound  per  month  to  each  tree  till 
signs  of  die-back  appeared.  Have  put  on  no  fertilizer 
since  last  June.  Prior  to  that,  had  used  only  Simon  Pure 
Die-back  for  some  months,  and  the  trees  have  mostly  re- 
covered. I  have  had  some  good  fruit,  mostly  grapefruit, 
each  year,  including  the  first  year  the  trees  were  planted. 
The  trees  are  250  tangierines,  125  grapefruit,  84  Ruby 
Blood  orange,  making  495  trees  to  the  acre. 

The  shed  is  irrigated  and  warmed  by  sulphur  water 
from  a  deep  six-inch  well,  and  supplied  by  a  powerful 
steam  pump.  Hydrants,  forty  feet  apart  each  way,  each 
with  a  spray-nozzle  covering  a  circle  forty  feet  in 
diameter,  nearly  cover  the  ground,  like  rain,  and  in  cold 
nights  keep  the  shed  as  warm  as  can  be  desired,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  being  always  at  seventy  degrees. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  367 

When  the  thermometer  outside  stood  at  eighteen  degrees 
for  several  hours,  the  temperature  inside  ranged  from 
forty-eight  to  fifty  degrees,  with  a  dense  vaporous  fog 
that  acted  like  a  blanket.  When  the  cloth  is  open  the 
spray  keeps  off  frost  only  where  it  actually  falls.  The 
capacity  of  my  pump  is  300  gallons  per  minute,  which 
is  enough  to  keep  frost  out  of  a  good  many  acres,  if  cov- 
ered in.  In  summer  the  cloth  is  taken  off  and  stored 
away.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  it  movable  in 
winter,  otherwise  the  fruit  is  watery  and  tasteless,  and 
the  trees  fail  to  bloom  properly  in  the  spring.  The  sides 
are  of  1x8  lumber  put  on  clapboard  wise.  The  cost  of 
the  structure  itself,  including  cloth  and  labor,  was 
f  1,200  and  it  covers  1  1-10  acres.— Theo.  L.  Mead. 

THE    SWIFT    GROVE    AT    POMONA. 

So  far  the  shed  has  proved  to  be  a  success.  A  shed 
will  easily  pay  for  itself  in  a  comparatively  short  time 
on  the  poorest  pine  land.  The  shedded  grove  has  many 
advantages  that  the  open  grove  does  not  have.  The  wind 
cannot  get  in  to  blow  off  the  fruit  or  twist  the  trees 
around  so  as  to  thorn  it.  Last  spring  and  summer,  dur- 
ing the  great  drouth,  the  trees  in  the  shed  did  not  suffer 
at  all — not  one  of  the  healthy  trees  even  wilted,  and  none 
of  the  fruit  either  dropped  off  or  was  stunted.  Down 
three  or  four  inches  the  ground  was  quite  moist,  while 
outside  you  could  hardly  strike  moisture  at  six  inches. 
I  attribute  this  to  the  partial  shade  which  the  shed  af- 
forded. Of  course,  I  cultivated  twice  a  month  regularly. 

I  find  that  the  insects  are  about  the  same  inside  the 
shed  as  they  are  in  the  open  grove. 

The  trees  are  easily  kept  from  freezing  by  means  of 
a  few  fires  which  are  easily  attended  to.  Night  labor 


368  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

costs  but  25  cents  per  hour,  and  one  man  can  keep  from 
twenty  to  forty  fires  going.  When  the  shed  is  closed  the 
temperature  is  from  four  to  ten  degrees  higher  without 
any  fires  than  it  is  outside.  In  the  winter  when  the  trees 
are  dormant,  I  build  fires  between  twenty-eight  and 
twenty-nine  degrees,  but  in  the  early  spring,  when  the 
trees  begin  to  grow,  I  "fire"  up  at  thirty-two  degrees. 
My  shed  covers  about  two  and  one-half  acres,  and  during 
a  freeze  when  the  temperature  outside  fell  to  17  1-2  de- 
grees, I  kept  the  temperature  between  31  and  34  degrees 
without  any  trouble  and  had  only  ten  fires,  burning  not 
more  than  one-quarter  of  a  cord  of  wood  in  nine  hours 
and  a  half. 

Some  people  think  that  trees  will  not  bear  under  a 
shed,  but  it  is  a  mistake.  My  trees  bore  well  in  the  spring 
of  1902,  and  I  fertilized  them  last  fall  for  fruit,  and  this 
spring  they  are  bearing  as  heavily  as  they  can.  My  trees 
look  fine  and  are  free  from  disease.  The  shed  is  a  wood- 
top  one,  and  opens  and  shuts  by  means  of  doors  thirty- 
two  inches  by  seven  feet,  which  are  fastened  to  stationary 
walk-ways  twenty-eight  inches  wide.  Two  rows  of  doors 
are  fastened  to  one  walk-way  and  constitute  little  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  top.  The  doors  are  fastened  by 
means  of  wire  loops  hooked  over  nails,  and  can  be  readily 
taken  down.  Part  of  the  sides  of  my  shed  are  made  of 
veneer  panels  four  feet  wide  and  part  of  one-inch  boards. 
The  panels  and  boards  are  set  in  racks  so  they  can  be 
readily  taken  down  and  put  up  without  nails.  In  my 
opinion,  the  panels  are  far  superior  to  the  boards,  as  they 
make  a  tighter  wall  and  are  much  easier  and  quicker 
handled.  The  cost  of  taking  down  the  sides  and  doors  and 
putting  them  up  again  is  about  f  40  per  year. — F.  Swift. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  309 

THE    HAW    CREEK     GROVE    AT     CRESCENT     CITY. 

The  covered  shed  of  this  company  was  constructed 
during  the  fall  of  1901,  but  was  not  finished  on  account 
of  the  wet  weather,  in  time  to  entirely  protect  the  young 
trees  from  the  severe  cold  of  December  of  that  year.  On 
about  half  of  the  grove  the  framework  was  up  and  ma- 
terial scattered  about,  and  this  slight  protection  sufficed 
to  preserve  the  trees  from  the  injurious  effects  of  the 
cold,  while  the  other  or  east  half  being  without  any  pro- 
tection whatever,  was  cut  by  the  frost  so  as  to  be  set  back 
about  a  year  behind  the  west  half.  The  trees  were  young 
buds  set  out  in  the  summer  and  fall  of  1900,  all  tanger- 
ines. The  present  structure  covers  a  little  less  than  ten 
acres,  about  650  feet  square.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
sixteen  feet  high,  with  posts  supporting  the  overhead 
structure  placed  12  1-2x17  feet  apart.  The  overhead  cov- 
ering is  cotton  cloth,  Osnaburg,  treated  after  a  process 
of  our  own  to  preserve  it  from  mildew.  We  use  sheet- 
iron  stoves  in  which  we  burn  coke  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture in  severe  cold,  about  125  to  the  ten  acres,  but  think 
we  should  use  more.  Each  strip  of  canvas  is  pulled  by 
itself  one-half  across  the  grove.  We  design,  how- 
ever, to  pull  two  strips  all  across  the  grove  at  one  pull. 
At  present,  one  pull  of  twelve  and  one-half  feet  covers  a 
space  of  seventeen  feet  wide  by  325  feet  long,  and  it  takes 
about  two  and  a  half  hours  to  cover  the  whole  grove.  The 
condition  of  the  trees  under  the  shed,  so  far  as  our  ex- 
perience goes,  is  perfectly  normal  and  healthy.  The 
trees  untouched  by  the  cold  have  made  an  astonishing 
growth  and  give  fine  promise  for  fruit.  Last  fall's  crop 
was  forty  boxes.  This  year  we  anticipate  a  crop  of  400 
to  500  boxes,  mostly  from  the  west  half.  Of  course,  it  is 
too  early  to  estimate  profits  from  the  venture,  but  we  be- 


370  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

lieve  we  can  grow  and  protect  the  fruit  successfully  if 
the  market  will  continue  favorable.  We  have  an  addi- 
tional ten  acres  which  we  expect  to  cover  in  a  year  or 
two,  as  soon  as  the  trees  are  a  little  larger,  protecting 
them  in  the  meantime  with  fires  and  banking. — Thos.  H. 
Stryker. 

THE    WETUMPKA    GROVE    AT    HASTINGS. 

You  ask  in  regard  to  cost  of  shed.  As  you  know, 
we  have  the  Rollins  patent,  board  wall  and  cloth  top. 
It  has  cost  us  more  than  I  think  it  can  be  done  for  again, 
from  the  fact  we  were  inexperienced  to  start  with,  and 
ruined  one  set  of  cloth  by  running  it  through  paraffine 
wax.  It  seemed  to  take  the  life  out  of  the  cloth.  It  has 
cost  about  $1,200  per  acre,  besides  the  cloth  that  was 
ruined.  Our  trees  when  we  put  the  shed  up  were  20x25 
feet  apart,  but  a  year  ago  this  spring  we  doubled  the  num- 
ber, making  about  160  trees  to  the  acre.  The  last  trees 
set  are  of  the  Tar  din0  variety,  and  have  made  a  very  satis- 
factory growth.  Many  of  them  have  twenty-five  or  fifty 
fruits  on  them  now.  Last  year  our  trees  bore  very  shy, 
and  I  laid  it  to  the  treatment,  viz:  no  fertilizer,  for  fear 
of  bringing  on  die-back.  Some  of  the  trees  were  showing 
symptoms  of  it,  but  last  fall  they  were  healthy;  so  I  put  on 
the  following  mixture,  five  pounds  per  tree :  seven  hun- 
dred pounds  boneblack  and  400  pounds  H.  G.  sulphate 
potash  on  half  an  acre.  On  the  balance  of  the  shed,  three 
and  a  half  acres,  I  used  your  Special  Simon  Pure.  The 
grove  to-day  is  in  perfect  health  and  has  set  fruit  plentiful- 
ly. I  am  satisfied  the  trees  can  be  kept  healthy  and  free 
from  scale  and  see  no  reason  why  they  will  not  bear  as 
heavy  crops  as  they  used  to  outside  of  protection. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  371 

We  have  the  shed  arranged  now  so  that  we  can  cover 
one  acre  at  a  time,  and  can  do  it  in  seven  or  eight  minutes. 
It  is  the  most  satisfactory  cover  I  have  seen. — G.  W. 
Leonard. 

COVERED    GROVE    AT    CITRA. 

The  Barney  shed,  covering  three  acres,  was  originally 
built  on  the  same  plan  as  the  Clifford  shed,  but  because  of 
the  difficulties  of  operating  that  style  of  cover,  as  enumer- 
ated in  my  letter  describing  the  Clifford  shed,  this  has 
been  made  over.  The  framework  of  this  shed  divides  the 
area  covered  into  squares  of  twelve  and  a  half  feet  each, 
and  where  two  swinging  shutters  of  6x12  feet  each  origin- 
ally filled  the  square,  these  two  swinging  shutters  have 
been  made  over  into  three  panels  of  4x12  feet  each.  One 
of  these  panels  is  put  down  stationary,  and  four  rafters 
are  put  up  over  it,  two  at  each  end,  to  support  the  other 
two  panels,  which,  when  open,  are  raised  up  and  leaned 
against  the  rafters  toward  each  other  and  form  a  roof 
over  the  lower  or  stationary  panel. 

When  the  cover  is  open  in  this  way  two-thirds  of  the 
cover  is  open,  one-third  is  always  closed.  When  closed 
the  two  side  panels  are  turned  down  until  they  lie  flat 
on  the  framework  and  the  whole  top  of  the  shed  is  closed 
snug. 

This  plan  gives  the  trees  both  sunshine  and  shade. 
The  openings  in  the  cover,  when  open,  run  east  and  west. 
The  sun  in  passing  over  throws  sunshine  and  also  casts 
a  shadow  upon  the  trees  below  in  its  day's  journey.  The 
trees  in  this  shed  are  doing  well  and  now  have  a  nice  crop 
of  young  oranges  on  them.  I  could  give  you  numerous  ex- 
perience we  have  had  with  our  sheds,  but  I  understand 


372  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

that  you  are  principally  interested  in  the  construction  of 
the  sheds. 

As  to  the  cost  of  this  shed,  it  would  be  pretty  hard 
to  come  at  it,  as  we  had  to  make  it  over  from  another 
style.  But  I  should  say  that  a  shed  on  this  plan  could  be 
built  for  f  800  per  acre. 

Trees  in  this  shed  are  twelve  and  a  half  feet  apart 
each  way.  There  are  735  of  them;  varieties,  Pineapple 
orange,  Triumph  pomelo  and  Dancy  Tangierine. 

Cost  of  firing  is  the  same  per  acre  as  in  the  Clifford 
shed.  (Four  acres  |14  per  night  with  wood,  |9  with 
coke.) 

This  shed  is  opened  and  closed  by  two  men  walking 
on  top,  taking  hold  of  each  end  of  a  panel  and  raising 
or  lowering  it  as  the  case  may  be.  It  cannot  be  operated 
quite  as  rapidly  as  the  Clifford  shutter-shed.  It  takes  two 
men  half  a  day  to  go  over  the  whole  shed.  But  in  the  win- 
ter we  do  not  open  it  all  at  once,  except  on  bright,  warm 
days.  Every  night  in  winter  we  have  at  least  half  of  the 
cover  down,  so  as  to  be  able  to  close  the  rest  quickly  if  it 
should  be  necessary. — J.  A.  Stevens. 

The  protection  of  citrus  trees  by  the  Everest  Rancho 
Incorporation  in  California  is  thus  described  by  B.  M. 
Lelong.* 

ROOFING   PROTECTION   AGAINST   FROSTS,    AND   HEAT    IN 
SUMMER. 

"Af ter  having  tried  several  other  methods  of  protecting 
trees  from  frost,  none  of  which  proved  absolutely  safe,  the 
Everest  Rancho  Incorporation  at  Arlington  Place,  River- 
side County,  decided  to  roof  over  a  portion  of  their  orange 
grove.  Such  were  the  results  of  the  first  trial  on  three 


Culture  of  the  Citrus  in  California,   158-160.     1902. 


FROST  PROTECTION.  373 

acres  that  the  company  extended  it  over  seventeen  acres. 
***********  rpke  proposition  embraced 
in  the  covering  is  to  prevent  the  warm  air  from  leaving  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  trees  at  night.  During  the  day 
the  earth  and  trees  become  warm,  but  as  night  cools  the 
atmosphere,  the  process  of  radiation  sets  in,  and  the  heat 
from  the  earth  and  the  trees  is  carried  off,  the  cold,  frosty 
atmosphere  taking  its  place.  The  idea  was  conceived  of 
covering  the  orchard  with  canvas,  which  could  be  rolled 
up  in  the  morning  and  let  out  at  night.  One  acre  was 
covered  in  this  way,  but  it  was  found  to  be  too  expensive 
and  unstable,  as  the  canvas  would  get  wet  and  decay.  The 
present  method  costs  about  f  450  an  acre.  The  fruit  borne 
by  the  trees  under  this  covering  has  matured  perfectly 
and  the  covering  serves  two  purposes,  i.  e.,  protecting 
the  trees  from  the  effects  of  frost,  and  from  excessive  heat 
in  the  summer. 

The  posts  are  3x4  redwood,  18  feet  long.  The  trees 
are  so  planted  that  the  posts  are  placed  21  feet  3  inches 
apart  each  way,  setting  them  3  feet  in  the  ground,  thus 
allowing  about  15  feet  in  the  clear  for  height  of  the  trees, 
which  is  sufficient  for  most  Navel  trees.  These  posts  are 
connected  by  pieces  of  1x4  pine  suitably  braced,  on  top 
of  which  another  strip  of  1x4  has  been  securely  nailed  to 
prevent  the  whole  from  swaying  sideways  with  the  weight 
of  the  cover.  This,  when  placed  in  position,  is  braced 
horizontally  with  braces  of  1x3  pine,  7  feet  long.  Thus 
is  secured  a  framework  that  is  quite  rigid  and  on  which 
a  man  may  walk  freely,  provided  he  has  a  head  clear  enough 
to  walk  on  a  four-inch  strip. 

Over  this  were  stretched  galvanized-iron  wires,  diag- 
onally, of  No.  11  wire,  which  are  securely  stapled  on  top 
of  each  post  and  to  the  horizontal  braces.  These  diag- 


374  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

onal  wires  are  stretched  very  tight  with  iron  stretchers, 
and  throw  a  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  cover  on  to  posts 
directly  that  would  otherwise  be  borne  by  the  pieces  of 
1x4  pine,  21  feet  3  inches  long.  These  diagonal  wires  are 
supplemented  by  wires  running  across  the  framework  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  cover  is  laid. 
These  four  wires — two  diagonal  and  two  cross  wires — 
steady  the  whole  construction  and  distribute  the  weight 
more  evenly. 

Thus  is  the  framework  completed.  For  the  cover 
Arizona  lath  were  used,  being  the  lightest  and  best  for  the 
purpose,  and  were  woven  on  a  lath  machine  into  common 
chicken-fencing,  placing  the  lath  one  inch  apart  and  weav- 
ing with  six  wires — three  double  strands.  This  is  made  in 
sections  21  feet  3  inches  long  and  rolled  up  preparatory 
to  being  taken  to  cover.  In  covering  the  framework  four 
rolls  made  of  four-foot  lath  and  one  roll  of  five-foot  lath 
are  used,  thus  filling  out  the  space  over  each  tree  of  21 
feet  3  inches  as  nearly  as  is  necessary.  It  takes  100  lath 
to  each  roll,  or  500  to  each  tree;  and  as  the  trees  are 
planted  100  to  the  acre,  50,000  lath  are  required  to  the 
acre.  This  Arizona  lath  is  cheaper  than  ordinary  pine  in 
that  part  of  the  State. 

The  crop  of  fruit  under  this  covering  was  of  good 
size,  color,  and  quality,  and  while  the  construction  of  the 
cover  could  be,  and  no  doubt  will  be,  improved  upon,  it 
has  proved  of  great  benefit  as  built." 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 
PRUNING  CITRUS  TREES. 

As  a  whole,  no  group  of  fruit  trees  require  less  prun- 
ing than  citrus  trees,  after  they  are  once  set  out  and  es- 
tablished in  the  grove. 
Most  of  the  pruning  is,  in 
many  cases,  given  at  the 
time  of  planting,  and  with 
the  exception  of  the  lemon 
systematic  pruning,  such 
as  is  given  peaches,  is  not 
practiced.  Excellent  spec- 
imens of  citrus  trees,  to 
which  the  pruning  shears 
are  entirely  unknown,  may 
be  found  throughout  the 
citrus  districts.  But  while 
this  is  the  case,  pruning 
must  generally  be  done  to 
some  extent  at  some  pe- 
riod in  the  life  of  the  tree. 

High  vs.  Low-headed 
Trees.  Some  years  ago  it 
was  invariably  the  rule  to 
grow  high-headed  trees, 
trees  with  from  four  to  six 
feet  of  bare  trunk.  Now 
the  tendency  is  the  other 
way,  viz. :  in  favor  of 
low-headed  trees,  with 
branches  sweeping  the  Fig  82  The  correct  way  to  hold  the  shears 

ornnml  n«a         illn«jtrfltprlin    P™nln»-      *'•    e.    with    the    cutting    blade 

giouna,       as       .nustrdteaagalllst  the  part  whlcll  is  to  remain 


376  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

in  Figs.  17  and  22.  Experience  has  proved  that  the  latter 
style  of  tree  is  much  preferable.  The  trunk  is  protected 
from  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  from  the  effects  of  cold  by  the 
branches  and  dense  foliage.  Few  realize  the  amount  of 
protection  afforded  the  trunk  and  large  branches  by  the 
mass  of  leaves.  The  fruit  is  more  easily  and  economically 
removed  from  low-headed  trees  than  from  high-headed 
ones.  Low-headed  trees  are  not  so  liable  to  injury  during 
wind  storms.  Air  does  not  circulate  through  a  grove  of 
low-headed  trees  so  readily  as  through  plantings  of  high 
headed  ones,  consequently  protection  by  open  fires  can  be 
carried  on  to  better  advantage.  Low-headed  trees  shade 
the  ground  beneath  them  and  prevent  the  rapid  evapora- 
tion of  moisture.  The  low,  hanging  branches  serve  all 
the  purposes  of  a  mulch.  On  soils,  however,  which  are  in- 
clined to  bake  and  become  hard,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
have  the  lower  branches  sufficiently  elevated  above  the 
ground  to  permit  of  cultivation,  but  generally  this  is  un- 
necessary. The  expense  of  spraying  is  lessened  consider- 
ably by  heading  the  trees  low.  To  secure  low-headed 
trees,  they  should  be  cut  back  severely  at  the  time  of 
planting.  Not  more  than  eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches 
of  trunk  should  be  left.  The  branches  which  form  the 
strong  framework  of  the  tree  should  be  allowed  to  de 
velop  from  three  to  four  buds  at  the  top. 

Old,  high-headed  trees  may  often  be  improved  by 
building  the  head  downward.  Frequently  suckers  spring 
from  the  large  branches  and  shove  their  way  up  through 
the  top  of  the  tree.  Many  growers  remove  these  as  soon  as 
they  appear.  This  is  not  good  policy.  They  should  be  al- 
lowed to  remain,  for  after  rising  above  the  surrounding 
top,  they  branch  and  bear  fruit.  Unless  they  are  needed 
to  fill  out  a  space  in  the  top,  or  if  they  crowd  or  interfere 


PRUNING  CITRUS  TREES.  377 

with  branches  already  developed,  they  may  be  carefully 
drawn  down  out  of  the  tree,  below  the  lowest  branches 
and  bent  out  to  one  side,  there  to  grow  into  large,  strong 
branches,  thus  bringing  the  head  of  the  tree  closer  to  the 
ground. 

Pruning  for  Insect  Treatment.  If  citrus  trees  are 
to  be  sprayed,  it  is  often  essential  to  thin  out  some  of  the 
interior  branches,  that  the  spray  may  be  thoroughly  and 
easily  applied.  The  pruning  must  not  be  too  vigorous, 
however,  and  no  more  of  the  center  branches  should  be  ,' 
sacrificed  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Heavy  pruning 
is  too  frequently  followed  by  a  vigorous  growth  of  water- 
sprouts,  and  unless  these  are1  promptly  checked,  the  in- 
terior of  the  head  will  become  as  dense  as  before.  Upon 
no  condition  should  so  many  of  the  branches  be  removed 
as  to  allow  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  penetrate  and  strike 
the  branches.  It  is  essential  that  the  trunk  and  larger 
branches  be  protected  by  a  mass  of  leafy  twigs.  Dead, 
dry  branches,  the  result  of  the  strong  rays  of  the  sun,  clear- 
ly show  the  necessity  of  this.  Citrus  trees,  as  a  whole,  are 
not  like  deciduous  trees.  The  latter  should  be  pruned  so 
as  to  admit  the  strong  sunlight  to  all  parts  of  the  head; 
but  not  so  with  citrus  trees.  A  head,  the  shape  of  a 
hollow  cone,  may  be  developed,  but  the  outer  band  or 
zone  of  foliage  must  be  sufficiently  dense  to  exclude  the 
strong,  and  to  the  branches,  injurious  rays  of  the  sun. 

Pruning  in  Relation  to  Die-back.  In  Florida  it  has 
frequently  been  observed  that  die-back  follows  the  freez- 
ing back  of  the  tops  of  citrus  trees.  The  roots,  as  a  rule, 
remain  uninjured,  and  large  amounts  of  materials  in 
solution  are  collected.  The  enzyme  producing  die-back 
enters  the  trunk  in  large  quantities,  and  the  disease  be- 
comes manifest.  Exactly  the  same  condition  may  result 


378  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

from  severe  pruning  of  the  tops.  For  this  reason  so  much 
care  must  be  exercised  that  the  advice  is  so  often  given : 
"Keep  the  pruning  shears  away  from  the  trees  and  let 
them  develop  as  they  will" — advice  which  it  is  best  for 
the  Florida  grower  to  follow  as  a  general  rule. 

When  trees  are  affected  with  die-back,  much  may  be 
done  toward  effecting  a  cure  on  most  soils,  by  root-prun- 
ing. The  amount  of  pruning  required  will  depend  upon 
the  severity  of  the  attack,  the  size  of  the  tree  and  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Pruning  may  be  done  by  cutting  a 
circle  around  the  tree  with  a  sharp  spade,  thrusting  it 
well  into  the  soil  so  as  to  sever  a  large  number  of  roots. 
The  balance  of  the  tree  is  restored  by  this  method,  and  a 
complete  recovery  frequently  follows  the  practice.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  in  addition  to  this 
treatment,  the  cause  of  the  disorder  in  the  tree,  should  be 
sought  for  and  the  conditions  favoring  the  development 
of  die-back  removed  as  far  as  possible. 

Pruning  Frozen  Trees.  In  treating  trees  which  have 
been  severely  injured  by  cold,  three  courses  are  open : 
first,  to  leave  them  alone ;  second,  to  cut  them  back  to  the 
ground;  third,  to  cut  them  back  part  way. 

The  first  mentioned  method  is  open  to  the  objection 
that  after  the  tree  sprouts,  (and  the  roots  of  a  citrus  tree, 
in  the  citrus  districts,  are  seldom,  if  ever,  entirely  killed 
by  frost)  the  old,  dead  trunk  and  branches  must  neces- 
sarily be  removed  sooner  or  later,  and  much  of  the  new 
growth  must  be  sacrificed  in  the  final  pruning  of  the  old 
top.  In  addition  the  shade  cast  by  the  dead  branches 
may  cause  a  weak,  sappy  growth  of  sprouts.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  best  that  some  pruning  be  done.  If,  however, 
the  trees  are  but  slightly  injured,  no  pruning  need  be 


PRUNING  CITRUS  TREES.  379 

done  immediately,  but  the  injured  twigs  and  branches 
may  be  broken  out  after  they  become  dry. 

In  cases  where  the  trees  have  been  severely  injured, 
so  as  to  leave  but  little  of  the  trunk,  it  is  best  to  cut  it  off 
at  the  ground.  Grafts  may  be  inserted  or  sprouts  allowed 
to  develop,  to  be  budded  when  they  have  attained  suffi- 
cient size.  But  on  the  other  hand,  if  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  trunk  still  remains  uninjured,  the  upper  por- 
tion only  should  be  cut  away.  Just  below  the  line  of 
division  between  the  sound  and  the  frozen  wood,  is  the  best 
place  to  cut,  but  unfortunately  it  cannot  be  definitely 
located;  hence,  each  must  use  his  own  judgment  in  decid- 
ing where  to  cut.  The  best  plan  is  probably  to  wait  until 
sprouts  start  and  then  cut  back  below  the  top  ones  to 
where  they  are  healthy,  strong  and  vigorous.  The  usual 
tendency  is  to  leave  too  much  old  wood;  the  heart  wood 
rots  away,  leaving  nothing  but  a  shell,  frequently  so  thin 
and  weak  that  the  branches  which  develop  upon  it  break 
down  when  they  become  loaded  with  fruit.  Wiring  must 
be  resorted  to  to  support  them  and  even  this  is  not  always 
successful. 

Where  sprouts  are  slow  in  starting,  the  removal 
of  the  earth  from  about  the  crown  and  crown  roots  will 
hasten  them.  Good  cultivation,  loosening  and  opening 
the  soil  will  also  assist  in  bringing  them  forward. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  that  there  is  a 
distinct  relation  between  the  size  of  the  trunk  and  its  re- 
sistance to  cold.  Small  trees  suffer  much  more  severely 
than  large  ones.  For  this  reason  a  single  trunk  from  each 
frozen  back  tree  is  desirable.  A  scheme  frequently  adop- 
ted is  to  allow  one  good  strong  sprout  to  develop  in  the 
trunk,  and  inarch  a  number  of  others  into  it.  At  most,  no 
more  than  two  or  three  sprouts  should  be  allowed  to  de- 


380  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

velop.  Thin  them  out  after  they  have  grown  sufficiently 
to  make  it  possible  to  choose  the  more  vigorous  ones.  Ap- 
ply the  rule  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  and  remove  the 
weaker  sprouts. 

After  the  sprouts  have  started,  it  may  be  necessary 
in  some  cases  to  resort  to  root-pruning  to  secure  a  more 
vigorous  and  healthy  growth.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  plowing  rather  deeply,  or  by  the  use  of  the  spade.  The 
amount  of  pruning  should  be  governed  by  the  size  of  the 
trees. 

Wiring  Sprouts  from  Frozen  Trees.  Supporting 
sprouts  by  one  or  more  wires  drawn  tightly  around  them 
to  hold  them  together  is  probably  the  best  means  of  pre- 
venting their  breaking  away.  Telegraph  wire  is  best. 
Some  have  taken  infinite  pains  in  boring  a  small  hole 
through  each  branch,  through  which  to  pass  the  wire,  be- 
lieving that  if  it  were  simply  tied  about  them  that  the  wire 
would  gradually  cut  into  and  destroy  the  branch.  Though 
such  would  seem  to  be  a  logical  conclusion,  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  the  case,  and  observation  has  shown  that  the 
wire  or  wires  may  be  simply  tied  around  the  branches. 
The  wire  cuts  into  the  wood  but  the  wood  grows  over 
and  unites  on  the  outside,  leaving  the  wire  firmly  imbed- 
ded in  the  wood.  Branches  wired  in  this  way  in  1896 
have  been  noted.  They  are  now  three  to  five  inches  in 
diameter  and  the  wire  passes  directly  through  their  cen- 
ters, with  the  wood  firmly  united  about  it.  The  flow  of 
sap  and  the  growth  and  development  of  the  branch  are  not 
interfered  with. 

If  the  sprouts  start  from  the  ground,  a  wire  should 
be  placed  about  them  three  and  a  half  or  four  feet  from  the 
ground. 

Pruning  Tools.     The  tools  used    in    pruning    should 


PRUNING  CITRUS  TREES. 


381 


be  made  of  the  best  materials.  The  cutting  edges  should 
be  keen  and  sharp.  Only  with  a  well-sharpened  tool  can  a 
clean,  smooth  cut  be  made;  and  a  smooth  cut  is  essential 
to  rapid  and  complete  healing  of  the  resulting  wound,  and 
the  sooner  it  is  healed  the  better.  The  injury  resulting 
from  the  removal  of  a  branch  frequently  allows  the  germs 
of  decay  to  attack  the  wood  and  destroy  it,  and  every 
possible  precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid  their  attacks. 
For  the  removal  of  small  branches  nothing  is  better 
than  a  good  pruning-knife  with  a  curved  blade  (Figure 
83  E.).  In  nearly  all  cases  the  pruning-knife  has  been 
supplanted  by  the  pruning-shears.  Many  different  kinds 
are  placed  on  the  market,  but  it  is  generally  conceded  that 
durability,  ease  of  operation  and  everything  else  consid- 
ered, pruning-shears  of  the 
type  illustrated  in  Figure  83 
P>,  are  the  best.  They  can  be 
obtained  in  several  different 
sizes.  For  the  removal  of 
small  branches  high  up  in  the 
trees,  a  pair  of  tree-pruners 
such  as  illustrated  in  Figure 
83A,  are  essential.  They  are 
provided  with  a  handle  ten 
or  twelve  feet  long  and  are 
operated  from  the  ground, 
thus  making  it  possible  to  re- 
move branches  fifteen  to 
eighteen  feet  from  the  ground 
without  the  use  of  a  ladder. 
Two  kinds  of  pruning-saws 

Fig.   83.     Pruning  Tools.     A,   Waters  ehnwn   in  "FMcmrp  83  TllP 

tree-primer.      B,    Priming-shears.      C,  "*6'«    lOWn  m  UlgUre  OO. 

Two-edged    pruning-saw.      D,    Calif  or-  fwn  prlrrprl    «nw    i<a    o    vprv  n«sp- 

nia   priming-saw.      E,    Priming-knife.  TWO-Cdged    Saw    IS    J    V6rV  USC 


382  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

ful  tool,  but  is  open  to  the  objection  that  it  is  not  suited 
to  the  removal  of  branches  in  close  contact,  as  the  remain- 
ing ones  are  frequently  injured  by  the  teeth  on  the  back 
of  the  saw,  i.  e.,  the  side  opposite  the  one  in  use.  The  Cali- 
fornia saw  is  a  very  convenient  tool.  The  blade  may  be 
placed  at  any  angle,  thus  making  it  possible  to  remove 
branches  in  cramped  positions  and  to  cut  them  at  any  an- 
gle. In  pruning  lemon  trees,  a  pair  of  long-handled  shears, 
commonly  called  lopping-shears  are  frequently  quite 
useful. 

GENERAL,    REMARKS. 

Dead  branches  should  be  cut  off  and  burned. 
Frequently  they  harbor  insects  or  the  spores  of 
fungi,  and  these  may  attack  the  living  parts.  All 
cuts  should  be  made  parallel  and  close  to  the  trunk 
or  branch  from  which  the  part  is  removed.  Stubs  should 
not  be  left.  The  cut  should  be  smoothed  off  with  a  knife, 
and  as  soon  as  completed  the  cut  surface  should  be  painted 
with  white-lead  paint.  In  no  case,  where  a  branch  of  any 
considerable  size  is  removed,  should  this  precaution  be 
omitted.  The  paint  preserves  the  part  by  preventing  the  en- 
trance of  the  germs  of  decay. 

All  heavy  pruning  in  Florida  and  the  Islands  should 
be  done  before  June  or  the  period  of  heavy  rainfall. 

PRUNING    THE    LEMON. 

The  Baronio  System.  This  method  of  pruning  the 
lemon  so  as  to  form  a  low,  flat  top  was  brought  forward 
by  Mr.  A.  C.  Baronio,  of  La  Mesa,  San  Diego  County,  Cali- 
fornia. The  method  appears  to  be  best  adapted  to  shallow 
soils,  and  is  not  held  in  favor  by  those  who  cultivate  the 
lemon  on  stronger  and  heavier  soils,  as  it  does  not  permit 


PRUNING    CITRUS    TREES.  383 

of  a  sufficiently  large  fruiting  area  on  the  tree.  The 
method  is  fully  described  by  Mr.  Baronio  in  Culture  of 
the  Citrus  in  California,  by  B.  M.  Lelong. 

The  ideal  tree  of  the  Baronio  system  is  one  with  a 
low,  flat,  wide-spreading  top  as  shown  in  Plate  XXIV.  The 
natural  habit  of  the  lemon  as  in  the  case  of  most  citrus 
trees  is  to  develop  one  or  more  leading,  upright  branches  in 
the  center  of  the  tree.  In  pruning  by  the  Baronio  system 
these  must  be  removed  from  old  trees  or  their  formation 
prevented  in  the  case  of  young  ones.  The  first  branches  are 
allowed  to  form  within  sixteen  to  twenty-four  inches  of  the 
ground.  Large,  horizontal  branches  which  form  the 
framework  of  the  tree  are  allowed  to  develop.  These 
branches  should  be  some  distance  one  above  another,  no 
two  of  them  being  allowed  to  start  out  at  points  directly 
opposite.  Three  or  four  primary  branches  are  sufficient. 
In  re-modeling  old  trees  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  bend 
these  backward  and  outward  until  they  touch  the  ground, 
where  they  are  held  in  place  by  stones  placed  upon  their 
tips.  Upon  each  of  these  strong  laterals,  "two  suckers  are 
allowed  to  run,  say,  one  about  one  foot  and  the  other  six- 
teen inches  from  the  trunk  (all  other  growth  being  sup- 
pressed), and  when  properly  matured  these  suckers  are 
similarly  arched,  one  to  the  right  and  one  to  the  left  of 
the  respective  original  three  branches,  which  by  this  time 
will  be  set  into  position  and  may  therefore  be  shortened 
in,  leaving  to  each  a  sufficiently  projecting  stub  to  which 
the  corresponding  newly-arched  suckers  may  be  fastened, 
and  thus  no  longer  obstruct  the  ground  below.  There 
will  then  be  three  main  branches,  each  subdivided  into 
two  secondary  branches,  giving  six  structural  points 
around  a  circle;  and  by  a  succession  of  similar  operations 
these  are  in  due  time  doubled  to  make  twelve,  and  so  on. 


Plate  XXH7. 


Fig.  A.     Baronio  system  of  Lemon  Pruning. 


Fig.  B.     Baronio  system  of  Lemon  Pruning,  adapted  to  shallow  soils. 


PRUNING   CITRUS    TREES.  385 

always  remembering  to  leave  sufficient  space  between 
each  of  these  fan-like  main  branches  so  as  to  allow  a  man 
to  crawl  through  them  and  get  into  the  middle  of  the  tree 
to  command  the  inside  surface  as  far  as  he  can  reach." 

Open-center  System.  To  meet  the  demand  for  a 
large  tree  and  still  make  it  possible  to  eliminate  the  cen- 
tral upright  portion  of  the  tree,  a  number  of  systems  have 
been  brought  forward.  The  most  important  of  these,  and 
one  which  is  steadily  growing  in  favor  is  the  Open-center 
System.  By  this  method,  the  central  branches  are  dis- 
pensed with  and  the  fruit-bearing  branches  are  confined 
to  the  outer  zone  of  branches.  When  the  work  is  well 
done  the  tree  top  resembles  an  inverted  cone  when  viewed 
from  above  the  tree,  downwards. 

The  system  is  well  described  as  follows  by  Mr.  C.  W. 
Leffingwell,  Jr.,  manager  of  the  Leffingwell  Orchards, 
Fullerton,  Cal.* 

"In  the  early  days  of  citrus  culture  in  California  many 
lemon-growers  did  not  believe  in  pruning.  At  the  present 
time  there  may  be  a  few  who  still  cling  to  the  idea  that 
nature  should  be  let  alone;  but  nearly  all  observant  grow 
ers  have  been  forced,  by  the  logic  of  facts,  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  lemon  tree,  in  all  its  varieties,  needs  pruning, 
more  or  less  severe,  to  bring  about  the  best  results. 

While  the  untrained  tree  grows  rapidly  and  produces 
heavy  crops,  the  fruit  runs  largely  to  culls,  and  often 
fails  to  come  to  a  profitable  size.  The  tree,  with  its  great 
load  of  fruit  growing  at  the  ends  of  long  limbs,  is  at  the 
mercy  of  the  winds,  and  is  often  split  and  ruined  by  the 
mere  weight  of  its  burden.  Therefore,  it  may  be  true  that 
the  lemon  tree  left  to  itself  will  produce  heavily,  but  it  is 


Culture  of  the  Citrus  in  California,  pp.   191-196. 
14 


386  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

generally  recognized  that  to  produce  the  largest  per  cent 
of  good-sized  and  fancy  lemons  the  tree  must  be  intelli- 
gently pruned. 

In  the  method  of  pruning  (usually  adopted)  the  main 
object  has  been  to  shorten  back  and  strengthen  the  scaf- 
fold or  main  limbs,  so  that  they  will  carry  their  load 
nearer  the  center  of  the  tree  and  be  stocky  and  stiff 
enough  to  withstand  strong  winds  without  swaying  and 
bruising  the  fruit.  This  method,  properly  carried  out, 
has  produced  good  results.  It  has,  however,  caused  a 
tendency  in  the  tree  to  form  too  thick  and  dense  a  head; 
a  tendency  very  hard  to  combat.  Even  when  carefully 
thinned  out,  trees  shortened  back  in  this  way  grow  faster 
in  their  tops  than  in  their  lateral  branches,  on  the  prin- 
cipal that  the  sap  flows  most  freely  in  vertical  lines.  The 
result  is  apt  to  be  a  tree  high  and  all  top;  and  this  top. 
while  beautiful  to  behold  (to  a  "tenderfoot")  is  not  fruit- 
ful, but  consists  chiefly  of  rank-growing,  vertical  leaders, 
commonly  called  suckers.  These  suckers  are  not  supplied 
with  fruit  spurs,  and  are  as  worthless  as  so  much  bam- 
boo. Even  did  they  bear  fruit,  it  would  be  almost  inac- 
cessible, and  expensive  to  pick.  The  lower  limbs,  natur- 
ally the  most  fruitful,  are  robbed  of  sap  by  the  superior 
drawing  powers  of  the  top,  and  fail  to  do  their  duty. 

To  overcome  these  difficulties  the  "open-center"  style 
of  pruning  has  been  tried,  and  has  given  good  results 
By  eliminating  the  top  entirely,  the  sap  is  thrown  into 
the  lower  branches.  These  limbs  being  horizontal  rather 
than  vertical,  and  more  or  less  bent,  elaborate  or  digest 
the  sap  and  produce  heavy  crops  of  good-sized  fruit.  This 
fruit,  moreover,  is  within  reach  from  the  ground  and  can 
be  economically  picked.  When  the  tree  is  once  adapted 
to  this  form,  the  regular  pruning  is  more  easily  and 


PRUNING   CITRUS    TREES.  387 

quickly  performed,  the  number  of  limbs  to  be  cut  being 
greatly  reduced,  and  all  being  within  reach  from  the 
ground. 

An  explanation  of  the  details  of  this  system  should 
properly  come  under  two  heads:  "Pruning  of  young 
trees/7  and  "Altering  old  trees."  As  most  of  the  lemon 
trees  in  California  are  three  years  old  or  over,  this  paper 
will  be  confined  to  a  discussion  of  the  method  of  altering 
old  trees  to  conform  to  the  "open-center"  style. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  trees  to  be  altered  are  branched 
fairly  near  the  ground.  If  they  have  been  up  high  no  sys- 
tem of  pruning  will  bring  the  fruit  within  a  reach  from  the 
ground,  but  to  cut  out  the  tops  will  save  sap  and  make  the 
lower  limbs,  such  as  they  are,  more  fruitful. 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  grower  has  trained  his  trees 
near  the  ground,  and  has  not  caused  the  branches  to  grow 
up  for  elephants  to  walk  under,  the  method  of  procedure 
is  as  follows:  Draw  an  imaginary  line  around  the  out- 
side of  the  tree,  as  high  up  as  a  man  can  reach  standing 
on  a  picking-box.  All  the  limbs  that  terminate  above  this 
line  should  be  cut  out.  Cut  them  off  at  their  juncture 
with  the  limbs  that  terminate  below  the  imaginary  line. 
When  this  is  done  the  top  of  the  tree,  looking  down  into 
it,  will  look  like  the  inside  of  an  inverted  cone,  and  the 
tree  may  be  called  open-centered. 

If  the  trees  are  small,  cut  out  all  limbs  that  extend 
up  from  the  center  of  the  tree  at  an  angle  greater  than 
forty-five  degrees  from  the  horizontal.  The  tree  in  appear- 
ance will  then  be  proportionately  the  same  as  the  older 
tree  above  described,  and  can  be  trained  gradually  to  the 
same  limit  of  height. 

The)  after-treatment  of  an  open-centered  tree,  what- 
ever its  size,  resolves  itself  into  two  distinct  operations: 


388  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  treatment  of  the  hollow  top,  and  the  training  of  the 
main  branches. 

The  hollow,  cone-shaped  opening  in  the  top  of  the 
tree  will  soon  be  filled  with  shoots  springing  from  buds 
on  the  main  limbs,  these  buds  being  now  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  excited  into  growth.  Some  of  these  shoots  will 
stop  growing  when  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  and 
will  harden  up  and  form  fruit  spurs.  Others  of  these 
shoots  will  continue  to  grow  at  their  terminal  bud,  retain- 
ing the  color  and  appearance  of  tender  sucker  growth. 
When  all  have  grown  long  enough  to  show  their  charac- 
ter, cut  out  the  suckers  and  leave  the  fruit-spurs.  As  a 
result,  the  saucer-like  top  of  the  tree  will  in  time  be 
clothed  with  short  spurs,  shading  the  main  limbs,  and 
bearing  fruit  of  finest  quality.  The  top,  before  a  dense 
thicket,  is  now  made  fruitful,  without  in  any  way  inter- 
fering with  the  remaining  (most  fruitful)  branches. 
With  each  growth  the  suckers  will  for  some  years  persist 
in  coming,  but  are  easy  to  take  out  as  soon  as  they  show 
their  identity. 

The  treatment  of  the  lower  branches  which  remain 
is  the  same  as  if  the  top  had  not  been  removed.  If  the  tree 
has  been  well  trained  from  the  start  its  skeleton  will  con- 
sist of  three  or  four  strong  main  branches  leaving  the 
trunk  near  the  ground,  and  running  out  more  or  less  hori- 
zontally; and  one  or  two  more  sets  or  decks  of  the  same 
number  of  branches,  leaving  the  trunk  above  these  an<] 
extending  out  at  an  angle  of  from  thirty  to  forty-five  de- 
grees. These  limbs  will  have  been  pruned  back  at  inter- 
vals, and,  forming  fouks  at  each  pruning,  will  be  found 
to  support  an  increasing  number  of  branches  as  the  out 
side  of  the  tree  is  approached. 


PRUNING   CITRUS    TREES.  389 

The  problem  is  how  to  handle  the  new  growth  on  the 
tips  of  these  branches.  In  solving  this  problem  we  should 
keep  in  mind  the  objects  in  view,  which  are:  to  make 
the  tree  stocky,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  it  from  get- 
ting too  dense.  The  pruning  should  be  confined  entirely 
to  an  effort  to  control  the  growth  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
tree,  letting  nature  take  care  of  the  fruit-spurs  with  which 
this  skeleton  is  clothed. 

The  terminal  shoots  or  leaders  of  the  tree  should  be 
left  alone  until  they  have  grown  to  be  several  feet  in 
length  and  from  one  quarter  to  one  half  inch  in  diame- 
ter. They  should  then  be  cut  back,  leaving  from  six  to  ten 
inches  from  the  last  pruning.  In  cutting  back  a  vertical 
leader,  cut  to  a  bud  that  points  out,  away  from  the  tree; 
horizontal  leaders  should  be  cut  to  a  bud  that  points  up. 
By  persevering  in  this  practice  the  limbs  can  be  trained 
out,  then  up,  then  out  again;  they  will  be  angular  and 
crooked,  which  is  conducive  to  fruitfulness.  Their  angl- 
ing direction  will  help  to  brace  them  against  the  ever- 
growing leverage  of  their  fruit  and  foliage,  so  that,  while 
they  may  in  time  be  bent  down  to  the  horizontal,  they 
will  never  droop  and  rest  upon  the  ground. 

After  each  cutting  back  these  leaders  should  be  left 
alone  and  nature  given  full  sway;  and  this  is  what  will 
happen :  Five  or  six  buds  nearest  the  cut  will  be  excited 
into  growth.  Then  will  ensue  a  struggle  to  see  which  of 
these  buds  will  get  the  most  sap.  The  terminal  bud  is 
sure  to  get  its  share',  and  become  a  strong,  sucker-like 
shoot.  Probably  one  or  two  others  will  secure  enough 
nutriment  to  become  suckers  likewise.  The  rest  of  the 
buds  will  have  to  give  up  their  ambition  to  shine,  and 
will  settle  down  to  the  domestic  role  of  bearing  lemons, 
and  thus  perpetuating  their  species.  These  are  the  shoots 


390  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

that  we  are  after.  Were  it  not  for  the  cutting  back 
these  buds  would  become  dormant  and  lost  to  use;  the 
leader  on  which  they  are  situated  would  grow  five  or  six 
feet  perhaps,  before  nature  would  make  another  branch 
ing,  and  give  more  buds  a  chance  to  go  to  housekeeping. 

How  to  handle  the  shoots  which  get  the  sap  and  be- 
come leaders  is  an  important  question.  It  is  right  here 
that  judicious  thinning  should  be  done,  to  keep  the  tree 
from  becoming  too  dense.  All  the  shoots  should  be  left 
until  long  enough  to  show  which  will  be  fruit-spurs  and 
which  leaders.  All  but  one  of  the  leaders,  the  one  which 
points  in  the  desired  direction,  should  be  cut  off  clean 
This  leader  will  thus  become  the  foundation  of  all  future 
growth  on  this  branch.  At  the  next  pruning  it  would  be 
well  to  leave  two  leaders,  laying  the  foundation  for  a  new 
branch.  By  alternating  in  this  way  we  can  increase  the 
number  of  ramifications  of  the  tree,  without  getting  it 
too  dense — the  trouble  with  most  lemon  trees. 

These  new  leaders,  when  grown  big  enough,  should  in 
turn  be  cut  back,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner.  Be- 
yond this,  and  keeping  water-sprouts  out  of  the  center, 
little  need  be  done  to  the  tree.  Nature  will  take  care  oi 
the  rest. 

It  may  seem  impracticable  to  apply  one  set  of  rules 
to  all  varieties  of  the  lemon  tree,  but  in  the  experience 
of  the  writer,  all  have  responded  to  this  method  of  treat 
ment.  The  Lisbon,  being  first  and  last  a  lusty  grower, 
is  bound,  whatever  the  style  of  pruning,  to  make  a  rank 
mass  of  new  wood.  Let  it  grow,  and  cut  off  what  is  not 
wanted;  let  it  grow  again,  and  cut  it  back  again.  It  can 
be  made  to  bear  plenty  of  fruit  within  easy  reach,  if  left 
to  itself  it  will  produce  little  but  stovewood. 


PRUNING  CITRUS  TREES.  391 

The  Eureka  and  Villafranca,  being  of  more  tract- 
able habits,  form  less  and  less  new  wood  as  they  grow  older 
and  their  crops  increase;  so  that  in  time  little  or  no  prun- 
ing is  necessary. 

The  question  has  been  asked  whether  the  fruit- 
spurs  of  the  lemon  go  on  bearing,  or  die  after  bearing  a 
few  crops;  making  necessary  a  constant  growth  of  new 
wood,  as  with  the  orange  and  peach.  From  observation, 
the  writer  believes  that  the  lemon  spur,  with  the  apple  and 
pear,  is  long  lived  and  goes  on  bearing  for  years.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  spurs  are  really  short  lived,  severe 
pruning  alone  will  insure  new  wood. 

No  radical  system  should  be  generally  adopted  with- 
out careful  trial.  The  "open-center"  system  has  been  ap- 
plied to  a  large  acreage  of  lemon  trees,  with  unmistakable 
benefits,  and  the  number  of  acres  so  treated  is  increasing. 
In  the  orchards  in  charge  of  the  writer  sixteen  thousand 
trees,  mostly  three  years  old,  have  been  changed  to  con 
form  to  this  style.  Hardly  a  tree  has  been  lost  in  the 
transformation,  and  prominent  horticulturists  pronounce 
the  trees  unsurpassed  for  their  age,  in  size,  condition,  or 
fruitfulness.  Where  before  was  despair  as  to  what  to  do 
with  the  troublesome  tops,  now  all  is  simple  and  easily 
done.  It  would  pay  every  lemon-grower  to  try  these  sug- 
gestions on  a  few  trees,  and  let  the  results  speak  for 
themselves." 

Other  systems  of  pruning  the  lemon  are  in  use  in 
California,  but  the  two  just  described  are  probably  the 
most  important  which  have  been  brought  forward  up  to 
the  present  time. 


Plate  XXV. 


Tub-grown   Orange   Tree  in   Flower  and  Fruit. 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 

POT  CULTURE  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS. 

All  varieties  of  citrus  fruits  may  be  grown  in  pots  or 
tubs.  The  perfumed  flowers  and  the  rich,  glossy  foliage 
of  well-kept  specimens  make  them  exceedingly  desirable 
plants  for  the  greenhouse  or  house  conservatory.  Fruit 
can  be  secured  in  greenhouses  if  care  is  exercised,  but 
when  grown  in  an  ordinary  livingroom,  the  chances  for 
fruit  production  are  not  so  good.  The  writer  has  grown 
the  pomelo  so  as  to  secure  a  box  of  fruit  from  a  single  tree, 
fruit,  too,  that  was  juicy  and  of  good  quality. 

Specimens  for  planting  in  pots  can  usually  be  secured 
from  nurserymen  in  the  citrus-growing  districts.  They 
should  be  of  small  or  medium  size,  with  well-developed 
root  systems.  Plants  may  be  propagated  if  so  desired. 
Cuttings  may  be  made,  rooted  and  afterwards  either  bud- 
ded or  allowed  to  retain  their  own  tops.  Specimens 
raised  from  cuttings  of  such  varieties  as  can  be  raised 
from  cuttings,  are  quite  satisfactory.  It  is  possible  to 
raise  Otaheite  and  trifoliate  oranges,  lemons  and  citrons 
from  cuttings,  but  it  is  not  practicable  to  root  cuttings  of 
sweet  orange,  pomelo  and  lime.  If  so  desired,  citrus  seeds 
may  be  procured  and  sowed  in  flats  (Fig.  41).  When  they 
have  germinated  and  reached  a  height  of  three  or  four 
inches  they  should  be  transferred  to  pots.  As  soon  as 
they  are  as  thick  as  a  lead  pencil  or  a  little  larger,  they 
may  be  budded.  Buds  can  be  secured  from  any  citrus 
nurseryman. 

Perhaps  the  most  desirable  stock  for  potted  plants 
is  C.  trifoliata,  but  the  Otaheite  orange  is  also  good. 
Either  of  these,  it  is  believed,  will  make  the  potted  plant 


394  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

a  little  more  precocious  and  prolific.  But  good  results 
can  be  obtained  with  almost  any  stock.  Even  Rough 
lemon,  than  which  there  is  no  more  rapid-growing  stock, 
has  proved  satisfactory.  The  confinement  of  the  roots  by 
the  pot  or  tub,  reduces  all  stocks  to  nearly  the  same  level 
so  far  as  inducing  fruitfulness  is  concerned. 

In  dealing  with  potted  plants,  the  soil  is  almost  en- 
tirely under  the  control  of  the  grower.  A  number  of  dif- 
ferent soils  give  good  results.  One  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  virgin  soil  from  the  woods,  sand  and  well-rotted 
cow  manure  has  proved  satisfactory.  When  the  materials 
can  be  obtained  easily,  a  soil  made  up  of  one-quarter  good 
garden  soil,  one-quarter  sand,  one-quarter  leaf  mold  and 
one-quarter  thoroughly-rotted  cow  manure  is  probably  as 
good  as  can  be  put  together.  The  composition  may  be 
varied  greatly,  but  in  all  cases  a  sticky,  pasty  soil,  too  re- 
tentive of  moisture  should  be  avoided. 

Careful  attention  must  be  given  to  the  size  of  the  pot. 
As  the  trees  increase  in  size,  they  should  be  transferred 
from  one  size  to  another  as  they  become  pot-bound.  Older 
trees  should  be  placed  in  large  tubs,  but  in  general  it  may 
be  said  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  increase  the  size  of  the 
tub  beyond  a  diameter  of  three  feet.  Perfect  drainage 
should  be  provided,  a  point  too  frequently  overlooked. 
This  may  be  secured  by  boring  holes  in  the  bottoms  of  the 
tubs,  and  filling  in  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  with 
large  pieces  of  broken  pottery.  The  soil  should  be  well 
packed  about  the  roots  in  potting.  The  large  tubs  should 
be  filled  only  to  within  four  or  five  inches  of  the  top  with 
soil.  Afterward,  when  the  plant  has  become  established 
and  the  soil  somewhat  depleted,  this  space  can  be  filled  in 
with  potting  soil  containing  a  half  or  so  of  well-rotted 
cow  manure.  Ke-potting  may  be  obviated  by  replacing 
this  top  layer  with  fresh  material  from  time  to  time. 


POT  CULTURE  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS. 


395 


Dwarf  varieties,  such,  as  Otahite  (useless  for  its 
fruit),  the  kumquat  and  the  Myrtle-leaved  orange.  (C. 
Myrtifolia  of  Risso)  make  excellent  pot  plants.  They  do 
not  need  large  pots  and  do  not  require  re-potting  as  fre- 
quently as  the  large  varieties.  They  produce  flowers  of 
rather  small  size  but  in  great  abundance  and  fruit  may  be 
easily  secured.  If  flowers  are  the  desired  object,  no  va- 
riety surpasses  Satsuma,  which  produces  its  flowers  dense- 
ly packed  along  the  branches.  The  sweet  lemon  produces 
a  profusion  of  sweet-scented  flowers,  purple  on  the  outside 
of  the  corollas.  Of  the  sweet  oranges,  it  is  best  to  choose 
those  which  can  be  dwarfed  by  growing  on  0.  trifoliata, 
if  that  stock  is  used.  The  following  lists  of  varieties  are 
recommended : 

Sweet  Oranges — 
Majorca,  Jaffa, 
Pineapple,  Centen- 
nial, Ruby,  Maltese 
Blood  and  Tardiff. 

Pomelos  —  Dun- 
can, Hall,  Pernam- 
buco,  Marsh  and 
Royal. 

Lemons  —  Villa- 
franca,  Genoa,  Pon- 
derosa  and  Sweet. 

Limes  --  Tahiti, 
Mexican  and  Rang- 
pur. 

Kumquats  —  Ma- 
rumi  and  Nagami.  Fig>  84_  Pot.grown  Marumi  Kumquat. 


396  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Mandarins — Satsuma,  Dancy  and  China. 
Miscellaneous — Otheite  and  Myrtle-leaved. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  grow  seedling  specimens  in  pots, 
as  they  seldom  bloom  or  fruit. 

PRUNING    POT    PLANTS. 

From  time  to  time  it  is  necessary  to  prune  the  tops  of 
pot  plants.  Small,  immature  branches  accumulate  and 
should  be  removed  before  they  die.  Every  five  or  six  years 
it  may  be  necessary  to  head-in  the  tops  to  keep  them  with- 
in bounds  and  to  favor  the  production  of  new,  vigorous 
wood.  In  doing  this,  all  the  large  or  medium-sized 
branches  should  be  cut  back,  leaving  three  or  four  good 
buds  on  each  one  and  the  smaller  branches  should  be  re- 
moved entirely.  As  a  result  of  this  treatment  no  fruit 
will  be  borne  for  at  least  two  seasons,  but  a  healthy,  vigor- 
ous top  will  be  secured. 

FERTILIZING    AND    WATERING. 

Fertilizers  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  liquid  manure 
and  top  dressings  of  bone  meal  and  sulphate  of  potash. 
This  latter  substance  should  be  used  with  caution,  else  in- 
jury to  the  roots  may  result.  It  should  be  given  only  in 
numerous  small  applications.  Good  results  have  also  been 
obtained  from  the  use  of  dried  blood  and  bone  meal  in  com- 
bination with  sulphate  of  potash.  Plants  should  not  be 
allowed  to  become  starved.  This  condition  is  readily 
shown  by  the  yellowing  of  the  foliage  and  by  poor  wood 
development. 

Water  must  be  supplied  in  sufficient  quantities.  No 
citrus  tree  will  long  remain  in  a  healthy  condition  if  a  suf- 
ficiency of  water  is  not  supplied.  If  an  insufficient  amount 
is  given,  the  leaves  curl  and  drop,  fruit,  if  present,  also 


POT  CULTURE  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS.  397 

falls  and  the  smaller  twigs  die  back.  On  the  other  hand 
if  too  much  water  is  applied,  the  leaves  become  yellow  and 
fall  and  the  whole  plant  assumes  a  sickly  appearance. 
The  remedy  for  the  first  condition  is  to  give  water,  and  if 
the  plant  has  been  exposed  to  strong  sunlight,  it  should  be 
shaded  or  transferred  to  a  shady  place.  If  the  plant  is 
suffering  from  a  superabundance  of  water,  it  should  be 
turned  out  of  the  pot  or  tub  immediately,  a  large  portion 
of  the  wet  soil  removed  and  the  plant  repotted.  A  moist 
atmospheric  condition  is  beneficial  to  citrus  trees. 

Some  make  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  citrus  trees 
do  not  need  a  rest,  forgetting  that  a  period  of  rest  is  as 
necessary  for  their  welfare  as  it  is  for  ordinary  deciduous 
fruit  trees.  For  about  two  months  during  the  winter 
season,  the  full  amount  of  water  should  not  be  given  and 
the  temperature  should  be  reduced  to  40  or  50  degrees. 
Water  should,  of  course,  be  given  but  not  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  excite  growth,  though  this  would  hardly  hap- 
pen at  so  low  a  temperature,  but  enough  should  be  supplied 
to  make  good  the  loss  through  the  leaves  and  prevent  their 
falling. 

This  treatment  will  cause  the  wood  to  harden  and 
prepare  it  for  blooming.  Following  this  rest  period,  a 
higher  temperature,  75  degrees  or  more,  should  be  given, 
water  should  be  supplied  in  the  usual  amounts,  fertilizer 
applied  and  the  plants  placed  in  a  well-lighted,  airy  place. 
Plants  of  sufficient  age,  treated  in  this  way  will  bloom 
during  the  spring  or  summer  months.  In  summer  the  pot- 
ted plants  may  be  set  out  of  doors. 

TREATMENT    OF    INSECTS. 

Considerable  difficulty  is  usually  experienced  in  keep- 
ing potted  plants  free  from  insects.  The  worst  and  most 


398  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

| 

common  enemies  are  the  scale  insects  and  mealy-bug  (Dac- 
tylopius  citri) .  The  scales  can  best  be  held  in  check,  either 
by  spraying,  for  which  purpose  Good's  Potash  Whale  Oil 
Soap  No.  3  is  recommended,  or  by  fumigating.  The 
mealy-bugs  are  more  difficult  to  deal  with.  The  cottony 
substance  by  which  they  are  generally  covered  is  imper- 
vious to  sprays  and  the  only  method  which  is  at  all  effi- 
cacious is  to  go  carefully  over  the  trees  and  brush  the 
mealy-bugs  off,  then  spray  thoroughly  with  whale-oil  soap 
and  follow  with  thorough  applications  of  the  same  mixture 
at  intervals  of  ten  days.  It  should  be  worked-in  well  so  as 
to  penetrate  the  woolly  covering.  For  further  notes  on 
these  insects  see  section  on  insects. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 
HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 

No  portion  of  the  history  of  citrus  fruit  culture  is 
more  interesting  than  that  which  pertains  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  our  present  systems  of  preparing  the  fruit  for 
market.  When  the  first  oranges  were  shipped  to  nearby 
points  from  the  Florida  districts,  boxes  and  barrels  of 
various  sorts  and  sizes  were  used.  The  curing  of  the 
fruit  and  its  preparation  for  market  were  not  understood 
as  they  are  now.  As  a  natural  result,  heavy  losses  were 
frequently  suffered  and  many  became  disgusted  with  the 
growing  of  citrus  fruits. 

Mr.  F.  G.  Sampson,  of  Boardman,  Fla.,  under  date  of 
August  2,  1903,  has  written  the  following  interesting  letter 
to  the  author,  giving  his  first  experiences  in  marketing  cit- 
rus fruits.  Many  others  went  through  much  the  same 
trials  before  they  discovered  the  secret  of  placing  the  fruit 
on  the  market  in  inviting  shape: 

"When  we  came  to  Florida  in  1874,  oranges  were 
poured  into  second-hand  barrels,  shaken  down  and  headed 
up  and  rather  roughly  handled  all  the  way  through. 
After  two  or  three  years  the  supply  of  barrels  was  not 
enough  for  the  increasing  crops,  and  boxes  were  brought 
in  from  Maine.  They  were  of  different  sizes  and  we 
found  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  filling  them,  often  hav- 
ing to  take  the  fruit  out  and  repack  so  as  to  make  the 
box  right  on  top. 

"I  should  think  it  was  in  '76  that  Mr.  E.  Bean  (who 
lately  died  at  Jacksonville)  bought  a  number  of  crops  of 
oranges  on  Orange  Lake  at  Citra,  and  he,  with  Messrs. 


402  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Harris  and  Bishop — I  think  they  were  the  chief  ones — 
decided  that  the  square  box,  12x12x27,  was  the  most  con- 
venient size.  They  figured  up  the  size  of  orange  for  each 
pack  and  practically  the  present  style  of  packing  and 
number  per  box  as  generally  packed  now.  We  sized  the 
fruit  by  holes  cut  in  a  piece  of  thin  wood,  handling  each 
orange  and  placing  it  in  the  box,  but  Mr.  H.  B.  Stevens, 
then  with  Bishop  &  Co.  (now  manager  for  J.  B.  Stetson, 
DeLand),  got  up  a  sizer  which  did  much  better  work  and 
saved  an  immense  amount  of  labor. 

"It  was  the  second  year  of  our  shipping  that  we  got 
a  bit  of  experience  which  showed  us  the  need  of  careful 
handling.  Our  fruit  had  to  be  hauled  twenty  miles  to  the 
railroad  and  the  time  those  railroads  made  was  very  slow, 
so  that,  although  our  crops  were  being  sold  in  South  Caro- 
lina, we  often  had  complaints  of  rot.  We  had  a  visitor 
who  urged  us  to  ship  a  few  barrels  to  a  friend  of  his  in 
the  commission  business  in  New  York,  and  we  made  a 
shipment  of  six  barrels.  The  reports  said  that  half  were 
rotten.  The  remainder  sold  for  f  11.00  per  barrel  for  the 
three  barrels  of  sound  fruit.  Before  we  got  those  re- 
turns six  barrels  more  were  on  the  way.  That  trip  the 
steamer  picked  up  a  disabled  steamer  and,  bringing  her 
back  to  port,  made  a  very  long  passage  for  our  fruit.  The 
report  came  'seventy  sound  oranges  only.  Please  remit 
balance  on  freight.7  That  seemed  to  settle  the  matter,  as 
a  neighbor  said,  'It  is  as  I  told  you,  you  can't  ship  oranges 
to  New  York/  and  told  of  his  experience  the  year  before. 

"I  was  not  satisfied,  however,  that  fruit  which  would 
remain  sound  on  the  trees  for  months  could  not  be  put 
in  New  York  sound.  I  knew  the  fruit  was  not  being 
handled  decently  anyhow,  so  I  said  I  would  make  one 
more  shipment.  Captain  Keep  said  he  wanted  to  join  in, 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  4()3 

so  lie  took  three  of  the  barrels  to  his  house  (first  being 
more  careful  in  picking  and  handling  fruit)  and  he  packed 
them  first  a  layer  of  black  moss,  then  a  layer  of  oranges, 
and  so  on,  and  marked  the  number  of  oranges  on  each 
barrel  outside.  I  packed  one  barrel  first  a  layer  of 
oranges,  then  a  sheet  of  newspaper,  second  barrel  papered 
each  orange,  and  third  barrel  no  paper  (same  as  all  ship- 
ments before),  and  marking  the  number  of  fruit  in  each 
barrel.  We  requested  an  exact  report  on  each  barrel  by 
number.  The  report  came:  'Not  a  rotten  orange  in  any 
barrel,'  and  they  sold  at  $16.00  per  barrel.  That  seemed 
to  tell  the  story  and  from  that  day  my  brand  has  had  the 
reputation  of  standing  up.  An  orange  does  not  show 
a  bruise,  but  it  is  likely  to  be  there  all  the  same,  and  the 
only  safe  way  is  to  handle,  not  pour  the  fruit.  If  fruit 
drops  the  shortest  distance,  it  should  not  go  in  the  regular 
shipment." 

For  convenience  in  discussing  the  marketing  of  citrus 
fruits  we  have  considered  the  subject  under  these  heads: 
(1)  Picking,  (2)  Curing,  (3)  Grading,  (4)  Packing,  ^5) 
Marketing. 

PICKING    THE    FRUIT. 

Time.  Early  in  the  season,  when  the  markets  are 
good,  there  is  a  strong  temptation  to  pick  sweet  oranges, 
pomelos  and  mandarin  oranges  before  they  are  ripe.  Only 
too  frequently  large  quantities  of  green  fruit  are  placed 
on  the  market,  particularly  during  the  months  of  Sep- 
tember, October  and  November.  The  result  is  that  the 
market  is  weakened,  the  reputation  of  the  growers  suffers 
and  frequently  loss  of  money  brings  the  folly  of  the  prac- 
tice more  strongly  to  the  notice  of  those  who  would  be 


404  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

first  in  the  market,  whether  the  fruit  is  ready  to  ship  or 
not. 

For  the  early  market,  early  ripening  varieties  should 
be  planted.  If  oranges  and  pomelos  are  removed  from 
the  trees  before  they  are  matured,  they  assume  a  light 
yellow  color  and  an  exterior  appearance  which  may  de- 
ceive one  into  believing  they  are  ripe,  but  they  never  ac- 
quire the  rich,  delicate  flavor  of  the  fruit  ripened  on  the 
trees  and,  more  than  that,  they  generally  have  a  decidedly 
disagreeable  bitter  flavor.  The  taste  and  flavor  of  the  fruit 
first  eaten,  leaves  no  wish  or  desire  to  sample  another. 
The  practice  of  picking  and  marketing  green  fruit  can- 
not be  too  strongly  condemned. 

The  early  varieties  of  oranges,  such  as  Early  Oblong, 
Parson  Brown  and  Boone,  should  be  picked  just  as  soon 
as  matured.  It  is  a  fact  that  but  few  of  the  early  oranges 
ever  equal  the  late  varieties  in  quality  and  flavor,  and 
they  become  very  flat  and  insipid  if  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  trees  after  they  reach  maturity.  The  best  rule  is  to 
pick  them  immediately  they  have  acquired  their  best  fla- 
vor. This,  unfortunately,  is  often  a  little  before  they  are 
fully  colored. 

In  the  case  of  mid-season  and  late  oranges  there  is 
a  longer  period  during  which  they  are  in  good  condition 
and  there  is  much  less  danger  of  their  deteriorating  in 
quality,  because  of  over-ripeness.  The  period  during  which 
they  are  in  good  marketable  condition  may  extend  over 
a  number  of  weeks  and  the  grower  has  an  opportunity 
to  market  his  fruit  to  better  advantage.  Mid-season  and 
late  varieties  should  not,  however,  be  picked  until  fully 
ripened.  The  sugar  content  and  quality  gradually  in- 
crease up  to  the  time  of  full  maturity  and  if  removed 
from  the  trees  before  this  time,  the  quality  and  flavor  is 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  4Q5 

not  all  that  might  be  desired.  On  the  other  hand,  if  held 
on  the  trees  too  long,  oranges  may  become  deficient  in 
juice  and  a  considerable  amount  of  fruit  may  drop. 

Though  most  of  the  pomelos  grown  in  Florida  are 
shipped  before  the  first  of  January,  it  is  a  fact  that  but 
few  varieties  reach  their  highest  perfection  until  Febru- 
ary or  March,  or  even  later.  To  secure  the  finest  quality 
of  fruit  it  should  not  be  picked  until  about  that  time. 

Lemons  and  limes  must  be  picked  while  green,  but 
they  should  be  well  grown  before  they  are  taken  from  the 
trees.  The  rule  for  lemons  is  to  pick  them  when  they  will 
pass  through  a  two-and-a-quarter-inch  ring.  But  any  va- 
riety of  lemon  which  is  not  well  grown  at  that  diameter 
is  not  desirable.  If  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  trees,  lemons 
become  overgrown  and  do  not  develop  the  strong,  clear 
acid  that  characterizes  the  well-cured  fruit. 

Kumquats  should  be  picked  as  soon  as  well  matured 
and  colored. 

During  the  time  of  picking,  it  is  preferable  that  the 
weather  be  dry  and  the  atmosphere  free  from  fog  or  other 
moisture.  Bright,  clear  weather,  with  a  temperature  of 
about  seventy  degrees  is  ideal. 

Clippers.  Since  all  citrus  fruits  should  be  cut,  not 
pulled,  from  the  trees,  because  the  rind  of  pulled  fruit 
is  broken,  giving  a  chance  for  decay  to  set  in,  clippers  of 
some  sort  are  a  necessity.  The  blades  of  orange  clippers 
must  have  sharp  cutting  edges,  and  so  curved  as  to  make 
it  possible  to  cut  the  stem  close  to  the  fruit.  No  portion 
of  the  stem  should  remain  on  the  fruit,  else  it  may  punc- 
ture the  rinds  of  other  fruits  in  the  processes  of  picking  and 
packing,  therefore  the  cut  should  be  made  close  to  the 
calyx. 


406  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Many  different  kinds  of  clippers  have  been  put  on 
the  market,  but  those  of  the  Weiss  type,  with  rather  thin, 
curved  blades,  permitting  close  cutting  of  the  fruit  stems 
are  best.  They  can  be  obtained  of  any  dealer  in  horti- 
cultural supplies  at  a  cost  of  about  one  dollar  per  pair. 

Field  Boxes.  Quite  a  number  of  different  kinds  of 
field  boxes  are  in  common  use  in  our  citrus  groves  or 
orchards.  Some  growers  use  the  ordinary  orange  boxes, 
those  in  which  the  fruit  is  to  be  shipped,  filling  them  in 
the  grove,  transporting  them  to  the  packing  house  and 
then  repacking  them  in  the  same  boxes  after  curing,  siz- 
ing and  wrapping.  This  method  is  very  good  where  the 
fruit  has  to  be  transported  long  distances  to  the  packing 
house,  but  there  is  danger  of  soiling  the  boxes  and  they 
are  somewhat  awkward  to  handle. 

Convenient  field  boxes  may  be  made  from  orange 
boxes  by  providing  them  with  handles  by  cutting  a  hand 
hold  through  the  ends  two  or  two  and  a  half  inches  down 
from  the  upper  edges.  These  cannot  thereafter  be  used 
for  shipping  fruit,  but  must  be  used  entirely  as  field 
boxes. 

A  handy  field  box  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  85.  Mr.  W.  S. 
Hart,  of  Hawks'  Park,  Fla.,  who  invented  it,  thus  de- 
scribes it  in  the  Report  of  the  Florida  State  Horticultural 
Society  for  1892: 

"The  ends  or  heads  are  1x10x12  inches,  and  have  a 
hand  hold  two  inches  down  from  the  upper  edge;  on  the 
inside  at  the  top  is  a  half-inch  rabbet,  cut  one-half  inch 
deep;  and  across  the  ends  of  the  heads,  except  for  one 
inch  up  from  the  bottom  is  nailed  a  cleat,  1x1 1-2  inches. 
This  strip  forms  a  stop  at  each  end  of  the  rabbet  and  also 
prevents  the  heads  from  splitting.  Just  flush  with  the 
bottom  of  the  rabbet  is  nailed  a  half-inch  cleat  along  its 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 


407 


length  that  serves  to  make  the  bottom  of  the  rabbet  one 
inch  wide. 

"The  heads  are  one  inch  further  apart  at  the  top  than 
at  the  bottom. 

"The  sides  and  bottoms  are  the  ordinary  sawed  pine, 
1-4  inch  thick  by  6  inches  wide  and  26  5-8  inches  long ; 
these  are  better  than  veneer,  being  stiffer,  which  prevents 
pinching  of  the  fruit;  the  sides  are  nailed  1  inch  up  from 
the  bottoms,  leaving  free  circulation  of  air ;  the  ends  stand 
3  inches  above  the  sides. 

"These   boxes   hold   about  two-thirds  of  a   standard 


Fig.    85.  Field   box   for   handling  fruit. 

box  of  packed  fruit,  and  can  be  piled,  one  above  another, 
as  high  as  a  person  can  reach  without  danger  of  crush 
ing  the  fruit.  The  rabbets  hold  them  from  slipping,  when 
tiered  up  in  hauling,  and  as  there  is  free  ventilation  and 
no  heavy  mass  of  fruit  in  any  one  box,  they  can  be  stacked 
up  in  the  packing  house  and  left  until  the  fruit  is  needed, 
with  as  little  danger  of  injury  as  though  they  were  in 
slatted  bins/*' 

Picking  Bags  or  Baskets.  The  most  common  form  of 
receptacle  for  holding  the  fruit  in  picking  is  a  canvas  or 
duck  bag,  slung  across  the  shoulder  with  the  mouth  open- 
ing on  the  left  hand  side.  The  objection  to  any  form  of 


408 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


picking  bag  or  sack  is  that  the  fruit  may  be  jammed  or 
bruised  through  the  sack  against  the  sides  and  rounds  of 
the  ladder  or  the  branches  and  trunks  of  the  trees.  In- 
jury to  the  fruit  would  not  occur  from  this  source  if 
careful,  conscientious  pickers  could  always  be  secured, 
but  even  then  it  is  difficult  to  keep  from  bruising  the 
fruit.  Furthermore,  there  is  always  a  strong  tempta- 
tion to  pour  the  fruit  from  the  picking  bag  into  the  field 
box  without  removing  it  from  the  shoulder.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  under  ideal  methods  of  handling  the  fruit,  it  should 

never  be  poured  out. 

All  things  considered,  one  of 
the  very  best  picking  recep 
tacles  is  the  wicker  work  bas- 
ket— Fig.  86 — manufactured  by 
the  Wakefield  Rattan  Com- 
pany, of  Boston,  Mass.  The 
bottom  is  of  wood  and  inside 
it  is  lined  with  heavy  duck. 
By  means  of  a  stout,  broad 
strap  it  is  slung  across  the 
shoulder.  Inside  it  measures 
131-2  x  151-2  x  73-4  inches. 
The  newer  ones  have  the  front 
higher  than  the  back,  which  in- 
creases its  capacity,  as  it  dips 
forward  somewhat  when  filled. 
The  advantage  of  this  basket 
is  that  the  sides  protect  the 
fruit  from  injury  and  the  fruit 

can  be  conveniently  lifted  out  with  the  hands  and  placed 
in  the  field  boxes. 


Fig.  86.  Wicker-work  picking 
basket. 


lj-41 


r-i 


r 

18        ui 


Figr.   87.     Ladders  for  picking  fruit. 


410  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Ladders.  In  picking  citrus  fruits  a  ladder  of  some 
sort  is  generally  a  necessity.  If  the  trees  are  low  and  com- 
pactly headed,  a  ladder  may  not  be  in  much  demand,  but 
usually  in  removing  fruit  from  trees  of  any  consider- 
able size  something  of  the  kind  must  be  provided. 

For  removing  the  fruit  from  the  outside  branches 
a  light,  strong  ladder,  such  as  illustrated  in  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  of  Fig.  87  is  best.  It  should  have  suffi- 
cient breadth  at  the'  base  to  prevent  its  tipping  when  laid 
flat  against  the  branches  of  the  tree.  The  length  will, 
of  course,  be  governed  by  the  height  of  the  trees. 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  place  an  ordinary  ladder 
in  the  centre  of  a  tree  when  removing  the  fruit  from  the 
inside  branches.  For  this  part  of  the  tree  a  ladder  in 
which  the  uprights  are  united  at  the  top  is  not  so  likely 
to  catch  in  the  branches  and  is,  therefore,  much  more 
easily  handled.  Such  a  ladder  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  87. 

Stepladders  of  the  ordinary  type  are  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  manage.  The  trouble  with  them  is  that  they  will 
not  stand  securely  unless  the  ground  is  perfectly  level, 
a  condition  not  always  secured,  and  the  lower  branches 
of  the  tree  frequently  interfere  with  the  double  supports 
in  placing  the  ladder  straight  against  the  tree.  A  step- 
ladder  with  a  single  support,  such  as  is  shown  in  Plate 
XXVI  is  much  preferable,  much  more  easily  placed  in  posi- 
tion, and  just  as  secure  and  substantial  as  though  pro- 
vided with  two  supports. 

Field  Wagons.  A  low  truck  is  best  for  hauling  fruit 
from  the  grove  to  the  packing  house.  The  height  to  which 
the  fruit  has  to  be  lifted  in  loading  is  much  less  and  the 
low  wheels  are  not  so  likely  to  interfere  with  the  branches 
of  the  trees  in  passing  through  the  grove.  The  wagons 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  4H 

used  in  hauling  fruit  should  be  provided  with  good 
springs. 

It  is  best  that  the  fruit  be  not  exposed  to  the  sun 
after  it  is  removed  from  the  trees.  Neither  should  the 
packed  boxes  of  fruit  be  exposed  to  the  strong  rays  of  the 
sun.  To  protect  the  fruit,  either  in  hauling  from  the  grove 
to  the  packing  house  or  from  the  packing  house  to  the 
shipping  point,  a  duck  or  canvas  cover  should  be  thrown 
over  it. 

Pickers  and  Picking.  Good,  reliable  pickers  only, 
should  be  engaged.  They  should  be  careful  men,  who 
can  be  trusted  to  handle  the  fruit  carefully.  Too  much 
stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  proper  manner  of  hand- 
ling the  fruit  at  this  stage.  When  the  fruit  is  removed 
from  the  trees,  the  rind  is  charged  with  moisture,  par- 
ticularly early  in  the  season,  and  great  care  must  be 
exercised  in  handling  it.  The  pickers  should  be  in- 
structed that  fruit  must  not  be  dropped,  poured  from  one 
receptacle  to  another,  or  bruised  in  any  way.  Slight 
bruises  cannot  be  seen,  but  they  may  be  there  neverthe- 
less, and  will  eventually  show  up  in  the  form  of  soft, 
rotten  spots.  Any  picker  who  handles  fruit  carelessly,  and 
who  will  not  mend  his  ways  should  be  promptly  dismissed. 
If  a  number  of  pickers  are  engaged  they  should  be  placed 
in  charge  of  a  competent  foreman. 

The  picker's  fingernails  should  be  trimmed  short, 
particularly  in  picking  lemons.  The  rind  of  the  fruit  is 
frequently  cut  and  punctured  by  long,  sharp  nails,  and 
fruit  otherwise  good  and  sound  frequently  has  to  be  con- 
signed to  the  cull  heap  for  this  reason  alone. 

Pickers  may  be  engaged  by  the  day,  week  or  month, 
or  the  picking  may  be  paid  for  by  the  box.  In  the  latter 
case,  some  system  of  checking  must  be  employed.  The 


412  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

fruit  picked  by  each  individual   may   be   designated  by  a 
number  marked  on  the  end  of  the  field  box. 

CURING. 

Washing.  If  it  is  necessary  to  wash  the  fruit,  it 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  it  is  brought  to  the  packing 
house.  Washing,  whether  by  machinery  or  by  hand, 
should  be  very  carefully  done.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  bruise  or  injure  the  rind  of  the  fruit.  Various  ma- 
chines are  in  use  for  washing  and  brushing  the  fruit  so 
as  to  make  it  bright  and  clean.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  Warner  washer,  manufactured  by  S.  C. 
Warner,  Palatka,  Fla.,  and  the  Tangent  Fruit  Washer, 
manufactured  by  Wright  Bros.,  Riverside,  Gal.  The 
ideal  washer  should  do  the  work  thoroughly  without  in- 
jury to  the  rind  of  the  fruit.  While  it  is  a  fact  that  the 
appearance  of  fruit  which  shows  the  presence  of  sooty 
mold,  fly-speck  fungus  or  scales,  can  be  very  materially 
improved  by  washing,  still  the  process  must  not  be  so 
severe  as  to  injure  the  shipping  quality  of  the  fruit. 

If  small  lots  of  fruit  are  to  be  washed,  it  may  be 
done  by  hand,  using  a  medium  stiff  brush  or  the  membrane 
of  the  dish-rag  gourd.  To  polish  fruit  so  as  to  give  it 
a  bright,  glossy  appearance  nothing  is  better  than  a  hand- 
ful of  natural  sheep's  wool  or  a  piece  of  soft  flannel  rag. 

Effects  and  Need  of  Curing.  When  citrus  fruits  are 
freshly  removed  from  the  trees,  the  cells  of  the  rind  are 
filled  with  moisture  to  their  fullest  extent.  .  In  this  con- 
dition, the  rind  is  brittle  and  easily  cracked  or  broken 
in  handling.  This  is  more  particularly  true  of  the  fruit 
in  the  first  part  of  the  season  than  it  is  along  in  March 
and  April. 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 


If  the  fruit  is  bruised  or  bumped  when  the  cells  of 
the  rind  are  congested,  it  is  very  injurious  to  its  keeping 
quality.  In  fact  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  put  it 
through  the  processes  of  grading,  sizing  and  packing  with- 
out doing  serious  damage  to  the  fruit.  In  packing,  it  is 
always  advisable  to  have  the  fruit  a  half  inch  or  so  above 
the  edges  of  the  box  before  putting  the  head  or  cover 
on  it.  The  cover  is  pressed  down  in  a  header  or  press 
and  considerable  pressure  is  necessary.  The  writer  has 
stood  in  packing  houses  and  seen  the  heads  put  on  boxes 
of  uncured  fruit  with  such  force  as  to  burst  the  rinds 
of  the  fruit  and  send  the  juice  spurting  in  tiny  streams 
through  the  cracks  in  the  box  or  trickling  down  the  sides. 
Such  practice  is  ruinous  to  the  keeping  quality  of  the 
fruit  and  to  the  trade. 

Citrus  fruits  should  not  be  packed  without  curing. 
Late  in  the  season  there  may  be  occasional  exceptions. 
In  the  process  of  curing,  the  rind  decreases  in  thickness, 
parts  with  much  of  its  moisture,  becomes  tough  and 
leathery,  and  adheres  closely  to  the  pulp  ball.  When  thor- 
oughly cured,  the  fruit  may  be  squeezed  out  of  shape  and 
properly  packed  without  bursting  the  rind.  Fig.  88  shows 
a  cross-section  of  a  well-cured  pomelo,  while  Plate  X^XVII 
illustrates  the  difference  in  thickness  between  a  cured  and 
an  uncured  lemon.  Note  how  the  rind  of  the  pomelo  is 
indented  and  bent  from  its  former  spherical  shape.  Its 
ability  to  withstand  injury  has  been  materially  increased, 
and  so  in  the  curing  of  all  citrus  fruits. 

The  loss  of  the  moisture  from  the  rind  is  another 
important  item.  If  packed  fresh  from  the  trees  the  mois- 
ture leaves  the  fruit  after  packing,  and  the  damp,  wet  con- 
dition in  the  box  is  particularly  favorable  to  the  devel- 
opment of  decay.  In  the  process  of  curing,  all  slight  im- 


414 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


perfections  and  bruises  show  plainly,  thus  making  it  pos- 
sible to  select  and  pack  a  finer  grade  of  fruit. 

Curing  Oranges  and  Pomelos.  The  treatment  of 
these  fruits  preparatory  to  shipping  is  different  from  the 
curing  or  processing  of  the  lemon.  Fruits  of  these  groups 
should  generally  be  cured  about  four  or  five  days.  Under 


Fig.  88.    Cross-section  of  a  well-cured  Pomelo.    Note 
the  thin,  leathery  rind. 


special  conditions  a  shorter  time  will  suffice,  and  if  very 
long  distance  shipments  are  to  be  made,  it  may  even  be 
necessary  to  cure  for  a  longer  period.  Fruit  has  been 
shipped  from  Florida  to  England,  Russia  and  Australia 
without  refrigeration  and  arrived  in  perfect  condition, 
but  special  pains  were  taken  in  curing  and  packing. 
This  simply  illustrates  what  may  be  accomplished. 


HANDLING   THE  CITRUS  CROP.  415 

The  packing  house  must  be  sufficiently  commodious 
to  accommodate  a  considerable  amount  of  fruit.  During 
the  process  the  fruit  may  be  placed  in  shallow  bins  placed 
against  the  wall.  These  should  be  padded  on  the  bottoms 
and  sides.  One  of  the  most  efficient  arrangements  of 
bins  for  citrus  fruit  curing  is  that  used  by  W.  S.  Hart, 
of  Hawks'  Park,  Fla.  Trays  are  provided,  6x5  feet 
and  sufficiently  deep  to  hold  two  or  three  layers  of  fruit. 
They  are  placed  in  two  tiers  across  the  room,  pivoted  in 
pairs  between  upright  posts.  Pins  placed  through  the 
posts  hold  them  in  place.  When  it  is  desired  to  roll  or 
move  the  fruit  about,  the  pin  in  a  certain  tray,  holding 
that  tray  in  a  horizontal  position,  is  withdrawn  and  it 
is  tipped  either  to  one  side  or  the  other.  This  gives  an 
excellent  chance  to  expose  the  fruit  to  the  air.  The  bot- 
toms are  made  of  slats  two  or  two  and  one-half  inches 
wide  and  rounded  off  on  the  edges,  spaced  about  one- 
half  inch  apart. 

Fruit  may  be  cured  very  nicely  in  field  boxes,  such 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  85.  A  sufficient  number  of  these  must 
be  provided  to  hold  the  picking  and  they  may  be  stacked 
in  the  packing  house  in  tiers,  as  high  as  convenient. 

During  the  process  of  curing  there  should  be  a  free 
circulation  of  cool,  dry  air. 

Curing  Lemons.  The  curing  and  holding  of  lemons 
for  market  is  a  much  more  difficult  undertaking  than  the 
curing  of  sweet  oranges,  for  instance.  The  latter  are 
usually  marketed  as  soon  as  cured,  but  the  bulk  of  the 
lemon  crop  must  be  held  for  a  considerable  length  of  time 
before  it  is  marketed.  In  the  first  place,  the  fruit  is 
green  when  cut,  and  must  be  cured  and  colored  before 
being  marketed,  and  in  the  second,  the  fall  and  winter 
months  are  not  the  ones  for  lemons.  Much  of  the  fruit 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  417 

matures  so  late  that  it  cannot  be  placed  on  the  market  for 
a  number  of  months  after  it  is  picked. 

The  objects  to  be  held  in  view  in  curing  the  lemon  are:  \ 
to  reduce  the  thickness  of  the  rind,  make  it  smooth,  tough 
and   leathery;   to  increase  its  juiciness  proportionately;  / 
and   hold   it  in   perfect   shape  until   the   market   season./ 
Many  methods  for  securing  these  desirable  and  necessary 
conditions  have  been  brought  forward,  but  it  is,  perhaps, 
not  too  much  to  say  that  an  entirely  satisfactory  method 
has  not  yet  been  advanced.     Something  still  remains  to 
be  desired,  and  in  the  interests  of  the  industry  a  thor- 
ough investigation  should  be  made. 

""what  appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  satisfactory 
methods  of  curing  lemons  and  one  from  which  very  sat- 
isfactory results  have  been  secured,  is  that  used  by  the 
Limoneira  Company,  of  Santa  Paula,  Cal.  Mr.  C.  C. 
Teague,  the  manager,  thus  describes  it  in  the  California 
Fruit  Grower,  July  11,  1903,  and  comments  as  well  upon 
the  practicability  of  shipping  lemons  east  to  be  held  in 
cold  storage: 

"The  past  year  marked  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not 
the  greatest,  strides  that  has  been  taken  in  the  lemon 
business  since  the  shipping  of  lemons  from  California 
has  assumed  anything  like  commercial  proportions ;  a 
stride  that  has  been  a  complete  revolution  of  old  methods 
and  one  that  is  destined  to  have  a  far-reaching  effect  upon 
the  future  of  the  business.  I  refer  to  the  open  air  method 
as  it  has  been  termed,  of  holding  and  curing  lemons. 

Unfortunately,  about  75  per  cent  of  our  lemons 
are  gathered  in  the  winter  and  spring  months,  and 
up  to  last  year  the  experience  of  our  growers  and  ship- 
pers who  had  attempted  to  hold  their  fruit  until  the 
summer  months,  had  been  so  disastrous,  on  account  of  the 

15 


418 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


heavy  decay,  that  they  had  concluded  the  most  profit- 
able way  was  to  ship  the  fruit  within  from  four  to  six 
weeks  after  gathering.  The  result  was  that  the  fruit  was 
not  equably  distributed  throughout  the  year,  and  at  times 
the  .market  would  be  so  glutted  that  the  shipper  would 
get  "red  ink"  for  his  shipment.  Not  being  able  to  hold 
his  lemons  when  the  market  was  low,  and  having  only 
the  smaller  percentage  of  his  crop  in  the  summer,  when  the 

price  is  usually  high, 
one  can  perhaps  im- 
agine how  the  lemon 
growers'  books  have 
been  balancing  at  the 
end  of  the  year  and 
will  probably  be  able 
to  answer  the  ques- 
tion often  asked : 

Fig.  89.     A  package  of  Italian  lemons  as  "  nV      are      SO 

they   arrived   in   an   American  market.  leillOn      °TOV6S 

budded  over  to  oranges? 


"STYLE     OF     PACKING     HOUSES. 

"The  old  style  lemon  house,  and  the  one  still  used 
by  many  of  our  growers,  is  a  double- walled,  double-roofed 
affair,  some  of  them  having  patent  systems  of  ventila- 
tion, and  others  depending  simply  upon  doors  and  win- 
dows. When  attempting  to  hold  lemons  by  this  method, 
they  are  massed  in  the  house  and  the  fruit  just  clipped 
given  exactly  the  same  ventilation  as  that  which  has  been 
in  the  house  several  months ;  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
lemons  in  different  stages  of  curing  require  radically  dif- 
ferent treatment  as  regards  ventilation.  As  a  result  of 
this  treatment  some  of  the  fruit  is  usually  wilted  from 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS   CROP.  419 

receiving  too  much  air,  while  the  greater  portion  of  it 
is  badly  decayed  from  receiving  too  little. 

"Proper  ventilation  is  the  keynote  of  success  in  keep- 
ing  lemons,  and  after  extensive  and  expensive  experience 
along  the  old  linos,  1  assert  that  it  is  entirely  impractical 
to  hold  lemons  in  large  quantities,  for  any  great  length  of 
time  by  the  old  method.  We  have  all  been  on  the  wrong 
track  in  believing  a  low  temperature  first  in  importance. 
If  the  ventilation  is  right  the  temperature  will  take  care 
""of  itself.  I  have  always  said  that  the  proper  keeping 
point  for  lemons  is  just  that  point  between  where  they 
will  wilt  and  where  they  will  sweat. 

"The  Limoneria  Company,  of  Santa  Paula,  was  the 
first  to  equip  a  house  on  the  open  air  plan,  and  as  that 
company  has  the  most  extensive  plant  and  the  widest 
experience  in  this  method,  perhaps  a  description  of  its 
lemon  house  and  its  methods  may  be  of  interest : 

"THE  METHOD  OF  PACKING. 

"To  begin  with,  the  lemons  are  very  carefully  gath- 
ered, great  care  being  taken  in  handling  so  as  not  to  bruise 
the  fruit.  Rings  of  2  5-16  inches  in  diameter  are  used  for 
winter  pickings  and  2  1-4  inches  in  diameter  for  spring 
and  summer,  never  more  than  six  weeks  being  allowed  to 
elapse  between  clippings,  and  the  fruit  is  usually 
gathered  about  once  a  month.  By  careful  attention  to  this, 
desirable  sizes  and  good  keeping  stock  are  obtained.  I 
want  to  say  right  here  that  this  is  the  weak  point  of  over 
90  per  cent  of  the  lemon  growers  of  California.  I  have 
just  returned  from  a  tour  of  the  principal  lemon  growing 
sections  of  the  State,  and  I  found,  as  I  have  always  found, 
that  the  carelessness  with  which  clipping  is  done  is  al- 
most criminal.  In  grove  after  grove  which  I  visited  at 


420  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

least  50  per  cent  of  the  value  had  been  lost  by  allowing 
the  fruit  to  hang  on  the  trees  too  long.  Not  only  on  ac- 
count of  the  large  sizes  would  it  have  been  discounted 
50c.  per  box,  but  the  keeping  quality  of  the  lemon  which 
is  allowed  to  mature  on  the  tree  is  never  good.  Good 
results  cannot  be  obtained,  even  by  the  best  methods  of 
keeping  lemons,  unless  the  fruit  is  picked  at  the  proper 
time  and  carefully  handled.  A  little  illustration  will, 
perhaps,  be  in  point. 

uSome  time  ago  I  visited  one  of  the  Southern  Cali- 
fornia packing  houses  and  they  happened  to  be  getting 
out  a  car  of  lemons  at  the  time.  I  noted  the  rough,  care- 
less manner  in  which  the  fruit  was  being  handled,  and 
spoke  to  the  manager  about  it,  remarking  that  our  fruit 
would  not  stand  that  kind  of  treatment,  and  asked  him 
if  he  did  not  have  trouble  with  decay.  His  reply  was 
that  they  had  practically  no  decay  and  that  their  fruit 
was  giving  fine  satisfaction.  Before  leaving  I  took  note 
of  the  car  number  and  watched  it  in  my  bulletin.  When 
the  car  arrived  East,  25  per  cent  decay  was  reported. 

"THE    PACKING    HOUSE. 

"The  Limoneira  Company's  house  is  300  by  100  feet. 
The  flooring  is  2-inch  planking  and  the  roof  covered  with 
gravel  paper  roofing.  The  building  has  no  sides  what- 
ever, allowing  free  circulation  of  air.  The  fruit  for  stor- 
age is  put  into  regular  shipping  boxes,  piled  in  blocks  of 
560  boxes.  There  is  a  double  row  of  these  blocks  on  either 
side  of  a  twenty-foot  space  which  extends  the  entire  length 
of  the  building  and  which  answers  the  double  purpose  of 
a  workroom  and  an  air  space.  The  boxes  are  so  piled 
as  to  permit  of  the  circulation  of  air  around  each  box. 
Each  block  of  fruit  is  covered  with  a  canvas  10x10x20 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  421 

feet,  made  box  shape  and  open  at  the  four  corners.  The 
ventilation  is  controlled  by  the  raising  or  lowering  of 
this  canvas,  and  each  block  of  fruit  can  be  given  exactly 
the  ventilation  that  it  requires  irrespective  of  the  other 
fruit  in  the  house.  By  this  method  fifty  or  even  one  hun- 
dred cars  of  fruit  can  be  handled  and  kept  in  as  good  con- 
dition as  if  there  was  only  one.  Each  block  being  num- 
bered, a  complete  record  of  the  lemons  from  each  of  the 
six  sections  of  the  ranch  is  kept  from  the  time  it  is  gath- 
ered until  shipped.  The  fruit  is  all  washed  in  a  lemon 
washing  machine  and  is  piled  up  in  the  house  wet  just  as 
it  comes  from  the  machine.  The  canvas  covers  are  not 
dropped  over  it,  however,  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry. 

"The  Limoneira  Company  handled  over  one  hundred 
cars  by  this  method  last  j-ear  with  perfect  success,  some 
of  the  fruit  being  kept  for  nearly  six  months  in  good  con- 
dition. Not  a  lemon  was  shipped  under  ice,  and  no  allow- 
ance was  allowed  nor  claim  made  for  decay,  excepting  on 
one  car  which  contained  weak  stock  and  which,  by  reason 
of  a  mistake  in  transportation,  was  nearly  a  month  in 
transit.  In  this  case  5  per  cent  deduction  was  allowed. 
There  were,  some  weeks  ago,  about  sixty -five  cars  of 
lemons  in  the  company's  packing  house  and  we  did  not 
feel  the  least  uneasiness  regarding  it,  knowing  that  by 
this  method  we  are  masters  of  the  situation.  Anyone 
trying  to  handle  that  quantity  of  fruit  by  the  old  method 
would  be  gray-headed  in  a  single  season. 

"AN    IMPRACTICABLE    PLAN. 

"We  hear  a  great  deal  of  late  about  sending  our 
lemons  East  as  soon  as  cut,  there  to  be  held  in  cold  stor- 
age for  a  favorable  market.  T  must  say  that  T  have  no 


422  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

faith  in  the  plan,  and  the  following  are  a  few  reasons 
why  I  think  it  impracticable: 

"(1)  The  lemon  when  picked  and  handled  properly 
should  stand  shipment  to  the  eastern  markets  without 
ice,  and  the  ventilated  lemon  that  arrives  in  good  condi- 
tion invariably  gives  better  satisfaction  than  fruit  that 
has  been  iced.  True,  sometimes  fruit  that  is  a  little  weak 
can  be  iced  and  made  to  arrive  in  fairly  good  condition, 
and  will,  perhaps,  sell  well;  but  what  does  it  do  when 
taken  out  of  the  low  temperature  of  the  car  and  subjected 
to  the  hot,  humid  atmosphere  of  the  East?  It  decays 
and  goes  in  as  evidence  that  California  lemons  are  not 
good  keepers?  I  believe  that  the  keeping  quality  of  hun- 
dreds of  cars  of  California  lemons  is  injured  every  year 
by  icing.  In  the  early  summer  months  a  few  cars  of 
lemons  will,  perhaps,  arrive  in  bad  condition  and  the 
order  will  be  sent  out :  'In  the  future,  ice  your  cars.'  And 
the  shipper  immediately  goes  to  icing  regardless  of 
whether  the  fruit  to  be  shipped  is  hard,  good  keeping 
stock  or  not.  If  it  is  bad  practice  to  refrigerate  fruit  in 
transit  it  is  certainly  not  good  practice  to  put  it  in  cold 
storage  after  it  arrives  in  the  East. 

"(2)  To  be  successful  in  the  lemon  business  means 
eternal  vigilance  as  to  care  in  handling,  so  as  not  to  bruise 
the  fruit.  When  we  who  grow  the  lemon  and  are  so  deeply 
interested  in  having  it  handled  properly  have  such  diffi- 
culty in  securing  help  that  will  touch  it  carefully,  what 
could  we  expect  when  it  went  from  under  our  watchful 
eye  to  the  cold  storage  plant  in  the  East,  there  to  be 
stored,  sorted  over  and  repacked  before  going  to  our  cus- 
tomers ? 

"(3)     The  expense  of  storage  and  repacking;  freight 
on  decay. 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 


423 


"(4)  Why  ship  them  East  when  they  can  be  held 
here  as  long  as  it  is  necessary? 

"But  we  do  not  want  to  hold  all  of  our  lemons.  What 
we  should  do  is  to  have  them  more  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  year  and  to  sell  them  when  we  can  get  a 
fair  price,  and  be  able  to  hold  them  when  we  cannot.  If 
we  can  do  this,  and  I  think  we  can;  and  if  we  will  strive 
to  pick  our  lemons  carefully  and  at  the  proper  time; 
handle  them  carefully  all  of  the  time;  put  up  an  honest, 
well-graded  pack :  if  we  will  do  these  things,  good  mar- 
ket conditions  are  sure  to  follow,  and  we  will  all  find 
our  lemon  groves  profitable." 

GRADING. 

No  part  of  the 
process  of  prepar- 
ing is  more  im- 
portant than  the 
grading.  Seldom 
is  the  fruit  fit  for 
market  without  it, 
and  were  it 
shipped  without 
grading,  serious 
losses  would  fre- 
quently result.  The  grade  of  a  package  is  usually  established 
in  the  market  by  the  poorer  specimens.  A  box  of  oranges 
might  contain  seventy-five  good  fruits,  but  if  it  contained 
seventy-five,  or  even  fewer,  poor  specimens,  it  would  cer- 
tainly be  graded  and  sold  on  the  market  as  an  inferior 
package. 

It  does  not  pay  to  ship  poor  fruit.  One  or  two  poor 
specimens  in  a  box  injures  the  appearance  of  the  whole 


Fig.  90    The  Huntley  sizer 


424  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

and  there  is  no  use  in  paying  transportation  charges 
on  poor  fruit  that  will  injure  the  sale  of  the  good. 

To  any  one  examining  the  citrus  fruits  in  any  large 
market  the  fact  that  there  is  a  great  lack  of  uniformity 
in  grading  soon  becomes  apparent.  California  shipments 
are  usually  well  graded  owing  to  the  fact  that  so  much 
of  the  fruit  is  packed  and  shipped  by  large  fruit  com- 
panies. The  output  is  graded  better  and  it  is  possible, 
to  maintain  more  uniform  standards.  But  where  the  fruit 
is  shipped  by  a  large  number  of  small  growers,  each  of 
whom  has  his  own  ideals  of  grades,  there  is  very  likely 
to  be  great  lack  of  uniformity.  Each  one  seems  to  be 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  he  must  label  his  best  oranges 
"Fancy,"  when  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  may  not  be  a 
strictly  fancy  box  of  oranges  in  his  whole  grove.  Again, 
the  fancy  package  put  up  by  one  grower  may  not  equal 
the  second  grade  of  another. 

There  is  no  good  way  of  getting  over  this  difficulty, 
and  yet  growers  should  have  a  well  defined  standard  of 
grades  and  adhere  strictly  to  it.  A  fancy  orange  may 
be  difficult  to  find  and  yet  it  may  be  possible  to  put  up  a 
package  of  good  marketable  fruit.  It  is  the  package  taken 
as  a  whole  that  establishes  the  grade. 

Grades.  In  Florida,  two  classes  of  fruit  must  often 
be  made.  A  certain  portion  of  the  fruit  has  been  attacked 
by  the  rust  mite  and  shows  the  effects  of  its  work  in  the 
rusty  color  of  the  fruit.  Certain  localities  are  free  from 
its  ravages,  while  many  growers  keep  the  insect  down  by 
spraying.  But  in  general  the  fruit  must  be  classed  as 
Bright  and  Russet.  They  should  be  rigidly  classed. 
Every  fruit  showing  the  least  russet  mark  should  go  in 
the  russet  class.  Each  of  these  classes  must  be  divided 
into  grades.  The  question  of  the  number  of  grades  at 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  425 

once  arises.  The  California  grades  are  thus  described  by 
B.  M.  LeLong: 

"Oranges  classed  as  'fancy'  should  be  extra  bright, 
with  very  smooth,  thin  skin.  Rough,  thick-skinned  fruit, 
be  it  ever  so  bright,  should  never  be  classed  as  fancy. 

"Oranges  classed  as  'choice  bright'  should  be  strictly 
bright  and  of  fairly  smooth  skin  and  desirable  size. 

"Oranges  classed  as  'bright'  should  be  bright  and 
free  from  smut." 

Mr.  W.  S.  Hart's  grades  may  be  thus  described: 

Fancy — Bright,  smooth,  thin-skinned,  without  specks, 
spots  or  injuries.  Quality  and  appearance  fancy. 

No.  1 — Smooth,  thin-skinned,  with  a  few  small  spots 
or  specks.  Quality  equal  to  Fancy  grade. 

No.  2 — Large  spots  or  marks,  slight  indentures  and 
discolorations. 

The  author's  preference  would  be  to  use  a  classifica- 
tion of  grades  somewhat  like  the  latter  and  designate 
the  fruit  as  Bright  Fancy,  Bright  No.  1,  Bright  No.  2; 
Russet  Fancy  and  Russet  No.  1.  Two  grades  of  russets 
will  generally  be  found  sufficient. 

The  fruit  should  be  carefully  culled.  Fruits  showing 
large  unsightly  marks,  sunburned  specimens,  thorned  or 
bruised  fruit,  fruit  showing  marks  of  die-back  (ammon- 
iated),  creased  fruit  and  fruit  that  for  any  reason  does 
not  look  well  and  will  not  carry  well  should  not  be 
shipped.  Its  place  is  in  the  cull  heap. 

Time  to  Grade.  Grading  may  be  done  in  the  grove 
or  the  fruit  may  be  graded  in  the  packing  house.  The 
former  plan  will  save  handling,  but  if  there  is  sufficient 
room,  the  fruit  may  be  graded  better  in  the  packing  house 
than  in  the  field. 


Plate  XXVIII. 


Fig.  A.     The  Ayer  sizer  in  operation. 


Fig.  B.     A  pneumatic  sizer  made  by  Maull  and  Jones. 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  427 

With  a  double  sizer,  such  as  the  Huntley,  the  bright 
and  russet  oranges  may  be  separated  as  they  go  to  the 
sizer,  running  one  class  through  one  side  while  the  other 
goes  through  the  opposite  side. 

Sizers  and  Sizing.  Citrus  fruits  of  round  or  oblate 
form  can  be  accurately  sized  by  machinery.  Lemons  and 
limes  must  be  sized  by  the  eye  and  either  sized  before  or 
at  the  time  of  packing. 

Many  different  kinds  of  sizers  are  on  the  market  and 
nearly  all  of  them  are  good,  though  some  are  better  than 
others.  The  most  recent  styles  brought  forward  are  the 
pneumatic  sizers,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  B,  Plate 
XXVIII. 

A  good  sizer  must  possess  the  following  points: 

It  must  size  all  fruit  accurately,  whether  round  or 
flat,  passing  the  fruit  through  on  its  greatest  diameter. 
It  must  not  injure  the  fruit.  It  must  be  easy  to  operate, 
for  in  many  cases  it  is  necessary  to  run  it  by  hand  or 
foot  power,  though  in  up-to-date  packing  houses  an  en- 
gine is  provided  to  operate  all  machinery.  It  must  have 
sufficient  capacity. 

For  an  ordinary  machine  a  carload  per  day  is  very 
good  work.  It  should  be  easy  to  keep  in  repair  and  eas- 
ily adjusted  to  different  sizes.  It  should  be  capable  of 
sizing  all  kinds  of  round  and  oblate  citrus  fruits. 

The  diameters  of  the  different  sizes  of  citrus  fruits 
are  given  in  the  tables  accompanying  the  section  on  pack- 
ing. The  sizes  of  lemons  are  considerably  smaller  than 
those  of  sweet  oranges.  The  sizes  usually  packed  are: 
210,  240,  275,  288,  300,  360  and  420.  Sizes  300  and  360 
are  regarded  as  standard  or  regular  sizes,  while  the  others 
are  designated  as  "off  size." 


428  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PACKING. 

The  late  Mr.  E.  Bean,  of  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  was  the 
originator  of  the  present  package  used  for  citrus  fruits 
in  Florida,  and  it  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say  that 
the  influence  of  his  work  has  been  felt  in  every  citrus  dis- 
trict in  America.  More  than  that,  the  rational  methods 
of  packing  and  handling  introduced  by  him  have  been  of 
paramount  importance  in  the  success  of  the  industry  and 
have  had  a  moulding  influence  on  the  methods  of  hand- 
ling every  other  tree  fruit  in  America.  The  following 
letter  from  his  pen,  giving  the  interesting  details  of  his 
early  experience,  appeared  in  the  Florida  Agriculturist, 
Nov.  7,  1900: 

"In  compliance  with  your  request  for  some  reminis- 
cences of  the  origin  of  the  systematic  handling  of  Florida 
oranges,  I  will  say  that  I  arrived  in  Florida  on  Thursday 
evening  early  in  November  of  1875,  and  on  the  following 
Monday  accompanied  my  brother-in-law,  Mr.  P.  P.  Bishop, 
went  to  Fernandina  1  o  attend  a  meeting  of  the  Fruit  Grow- 
ers' Convention.  During  the  meeting  I  introduced  a  reso- 
lution making  the  12x12x27  box  the  standard  package  of 
the  State.  The  resolution  was  adopted  and  the  package 
has  been  used  since.  I  opened  a  packing  house  at  Pa- 
latka  and  commenced  the  use  of  them  at  once,  having  them 
cut  from  cypress  at  Mr.  Boyd's  mill.  The  next  year  as 
there  were  no  veneer  mills  in  Florida  we  ordered  a  cargo 
from  Maine.  After  securing  the  box  it  was  necessary  to 
learn  how  to  pack  it  so  as  to  fill  and  make  a  solid  pack. 
This  we  found  to  be  a  difficult  problem.  We  spent  much 
time  in  experimenting,  sizing  and  learning  how  to  place 
the  oranges  in  the  box,  eventually  developing  the  225,  200, 
176,  146,  128,  96,  80  sizes,  which  with  slight  variations 
have  been  used  since. 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  429 

"It  might  interest  your  readers  to  know  why  the 
12x12x27  box  was  decided  upon. 

"Before  coming  South  I  canvassed  the  cities  of  Buf- 
falo, Rochester,  Syracuse,  Utica,  Albany  and  New  York, 
soliciting  orders  for  Florida  oranges.  I  found  that  the 
few  that  had  reached  those  markets  were  packed  in  soap 
boxes,  meat  boxes,  dry-goods  boxes  and  old  flour  barrels, 
unwrapped  and  arriving  in  very  bad  order.  I  secured 
a  few  small  orders  in  Buffalo  and  Rochester,  but  could 
not  sell  an  orange  in  New  York,  although  I  canvassed 
faithfully.  I  was  met  in  every  case  with  the  statement 
that  the  oranges  were  no  good,  that  they  would  not  bear 
transportation.  They  jeered  me  when  I  said  that  I  was 
going  down  to  engage  in  the  business  of  handling  them. 
One  prominent  dealer  said  that  he  thought  that  I  would 
simply  illustrate  the  proverb  that  a  fool  and  his  money 
would  soon  part  company.  In  the  course  of  the  canvass 
I  was  seeking  information,  not  only  as  to  the  best  pack- 
age to  use,  but  also  to  learn  all  that  I  could  about  the 
manipulation  of  oranges  in  older  countries.  I  called  on 
several  Italian  packers,  who  kindly  gave  me  a  full  de- 
scription of  their  methods  of  handling  and  packing  and 
showed  me  photographs  of  their  packing  houses.  From 
all  the  information  that  I  could  gather  I  reached  the  con- 
clusion that  a  square  box  that  would  give  a  multiple  of 
3  inches  would  be  the  best.  After  reaching  here  and 
conferring  with  Mr.  Bishop,  going  into  a  storehouse  where 
there  was  a  quantity  of  loose  oranges,  piling  them  up, 
comparing  the  12x12  space  with  the  10x14  of  the  foreign 
box,  we  decided  that  the  12x12  was  far  preferable  and 
that  size  Avas  agreed  upon. 

"I  might  add  in  conclusion  that  the  results  of  my 
shipments  from  Palatka  during  the  winter  1875-6  were 


430  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

satisfactory,  as  they  demonstrated  that  with  a  suitable 
package  and  careful  handling  and  manipulation  that 
oranges  could  be  transported  and  sold ;  for  when  we  closed 
the  packing  house  in  the  spring,  we  had  standing  orders 
from  New  York  alone  for  about  200  boxes  per  week.  In 
my  canvass  among  the  dealers  and  packers  in  New  York 
I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  enterprise  would  to  a  great  extent  depend  upon  the 
care  in  handling  and  the  proper  classification  of  the  fruit, 
and  that  only  perfect  fruit  should  be  put  in  the  box.  We, 
therefore,  from  the  start  rejected  creased,  plugged,  thorned 
and  all  imperfect  oranges.  As  the  result  of  this  care,  we 
had  but  one  complaint  of  fruit  arriving  in  bad  order.  We 
had  a  considerable  quantity  of  very  fine  oranges  from  the 
Lee  grove,  Leesburg.  One  lot  came  in  a  little  soft.  We 
shipped  twenty  boxes  of  it  to  Mills  &  Everals,  New  York, 
billing  them  at  $6.00  per  box,  f.  o.  b;  Palatka.  They  com- 
plained they  were  not  quite  up  to  standard  in  condition, 
and  asked  for  a  reduction  of  $1.00  per  box,  which  we,  of 
course,  conceded.  This  close  assorting  left  a  considerable 
quantity  of  cull  fruit.  A  laughable  incident  in  connec- 
tion with  it  is  worth  relating: 

"Judge  Gillis,  a  prominent  lawyer  of  Palatka,  came 
into  the  packing  house  one  day  to  see  what  we  wrere  doing. 
Looking  about  he  saw  quite  a  pile  of  culls  in  one  corner, 
and  asked  what  we  intended  to  do  with  them.  I  replied 
that  we  expected  to  sell  them  in  Palatka,  but  if  we  failed, 
we  should  dump  them.  He  expressed  some  surprise,  and 
soon  left.  Meeting  a  friend  on  the  street  he  said  to  him 
that  he  had  been  down  to  see  that  Yankee  who  had  come 
to  show  them  how  to  pack  oranges;  that  he  was  shown 
quite  a  pile  of  nice-looking  fruit  in  one  corner  and  was 
told  that  unless  it  could  be  sold  in  Palatka  it  would  be 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  431 

dumped  into  the  river.  He  guessed  that  Yankee  would 
not  last  long. 

"We  did  get  more  culls  than  we  could  sell  in  Palatka. 
Selecting  the  best  of  them,  we  packed  and  shipped  them 
to  parties  in  New  York  who  were  very  pronounced  in 
their  expressions  of  the  opinion  that  the  Florida  oranges 
would  not  stand  transportation.  They  reached  them  in 
good  order  and  sold  for  satisfactory  prices,  and  we  con- 
tinued to  ship  them  during  the  winter.  The  house  was 
so  much  pleased  with  the  result  that  they  sent  a  man 
down  in  the  spring  to  negotiate  for  an  interest  in  the 
business. 

"The  most  of  the  oranges  handled  at  Palatka  were 
pulled  from  the  trees  and  as  a  consequence  many  of  the 
stems  were  pulled  out  and  the  skin  broken,  and  besides, 
many  were  bruised  by  rough  handling,  and  had  to  be  put 
in  the  cull  pile.  We,  therefore,  concluded  that  in  the 
future  we  must  buy  the  oranges  on  the  trees,  have  the 
stems  cut,  and  provide  for  careful  handling  in  the  va- 
rious stages  of  the  work.  This  policy  was  inaugurated 
for  the  next  season's  business,  and  as  most  of  the  fruit 
came  from  the  St.  Johns  and  Ocklawaha  Rivers,  a  pack- 
ing house  was  built  at  San  Mateo,  as  being  the  most  con- 
venient point  for  concentration.  Contracts  were  made 
for  most  of  the  oranges  in  sight,  but  the  severe  cold  of 
December  1,  1876,  destroyed  all  the  fruit  north  of  Lake 
Munroe,  and  we  practically  lost  the  season's  business.  In 
1877-8  there  was  a  considerable  quantity  of  fruit. 

"Carrying  out  the  policies  outlined  above  we  were 
fairly  successful  and  did  a  satisfactory  business. 

"As  our  system  required  tight  packages,  we  found 
that  the  fruit  must  be  held  until  the  skin  softened  and 
became  flexible,  for  if  packed  when  it  was  hard  and  crisp 


4,3i>  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  cells  would  be  broken  and  more  or  less  decay  would 
follow.  We,  therefore,  held  them  for  several  days  after 
they  were  taken  from  the  trees  before  assorting,  which 
enabled  us  to  detect  the  bruised,  injured  and  thorned 
fruit.  Our  assorting  and  classification  was  very  carefully 
done;  each  orange  was  taken  up  separately  and  carefully 
examined  and  placed  in  the  class  where  it  belonged. 

"We  made  three  grades  of  bright  oranges  and  two 
of  the  russets,  putting  them  under  separate  brands.  I 
put  my  name  on  the  first  class,  which  was  supposed  to 
be  absolutely  perfect,  and  will  relate  a  little  incident  that 
occurred  in  relation  to  it.  1  was  making  a  trip  through 
the  West  and,  being  detained  several  hours  at  a  junction 
point,  strolled  up  into  the  town,  a  place  of  two  or  three 
thousand  inhabitants.  Passing  up  the  main  street,  and 
happening  to  look  up,  I  found  that  I  was  standing  di- 
rectly under  a  sign,  'Headquarters  for  E.  Bean's  Oranges.' 
I  went  in  and  inquired  what  there  was  about  E.  Bean's 
oranges  that  justified  so  prominent  a  notice.  The  pro- 
prietor replied  that  when  they  saw  that  name  on  a  box 
of  oranges,  they  knew  that  it  meant  that  they  were  per- 
fect. 

"I  have  written  the  above,  which  I  think  is  about 
what  you  asked  for.  It  is  largely  personal,  but  this  could 
not  be  avoided,  as  there  was  apparently  no  one  else  who 
had  the  courage  to  undertake  such  an  enterprise.  Later 
on  many  dealers  and  growers  became  packers,  using  sub- 
stantially the  same  methods." 

Citrus  Fruit  Packages.  With  the  exception  of  the 
lemon  box,  which  is  the  same  in  both  sections,  the  pack- 
ages used  in  Florida  differ  in  size  and  shape  from  those 
which  are  used  in  California.  Each  section  has  come  to 
regard  its  orange  box,  used  also  for  pomelos,  as  the  stan- 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 


433 


dard  package,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  a  uniform  pack- 
age, however  desira- 
ble, will  be  adopted. 
The  Florida  pack- 
ages in  common  use 
are  as  follows:  The 
standard  box  and 
standard  half  box 
for  sweet  oranges 
and  pomelos,  the 
strap  for  mandarin 
oranges,  the  stan- 
dard box  for  lemons 
(uniform  with  the 
California  box),  the 
16  or  24  quart  car- 
rier for  kumquats 

and     the       Six-basket      Fig-  91-  Kumcluats  packed  in  quart  baskets. 

carrier  sometimes  used  for  limes. 

The  Florida  standard  orange  box  should  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  contain  exactly  two  cubic  feet  of  fruit.  It 
does  not,  however,  always  do  so,  owing  to  slight  variations 
in  the  length  of  the  sides  and  the  thickness  of  the  ends  and 
partition.  The  sides  of  the  original  box  were  27  inches 
long,  and  one-inch  solid  heads  and  partitions  were  used. 
Seven-eighths-inch  solid  heads  and  partitions  afterward 
came  into  use  and  the  length  of  the  sides  was  reduced  to 
20  5-8  inches.  Later  the  paneled  heads  and  partitions  came 
into  use.  These  vary  somewhat  in  thickness,  being  about 
1  or  1  1-0  inch  thick,  and  the  length  of  the  sides  has  in 
many  cases,  even  with  one-inch  heads  remained  at  26  5-8 
inches.  Anything  of  this  kind  is  a  departure  from  the 
standard  measurements.  Whatever  changes  may  be  made, 


434  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  length  of  the  sides  and  the  thickness  of  the  heads  and 
partitions  should  be  so  adjusted  relatively  as  to  give  two 
equal  compartments  in  the  box,  each  12x12x12  inches. 

The  Florida  standard  half  box  for  sweet  oranges  and 
pomelos  is  generally  made  by  reducing  the  length  of  the 
ordinary  box  so  as  to  make  it  14  inches  long  outside  with 
one-inch  heads,  or  13  3-4  inches  outside  with  seven-eighths 
inch  heads. 

The  mandarin  oranges  must  be  regarded  as  fancy 
fruit  and  should  therefore  be  placed  on  the  markets  in 
smaller  packages.  For  oranges  of  this  group,  the  best 
package  is  the  strap,  consisting  of  two  half-boxes,  packed 
separately  and  strapped  together  with  the  tops  inward. 
When  they  have  reached  their  market  the  half-boxes  can 
be  taken  apart  and  sold  separately  while  the  two  together 
can  be  shipped  at  the  same  rate  as  an  ordinary  sweet 
orange  box. 

It  is  conceded  that  the  length  and  thickness  of  the 
heads  and  partitions  should  be  the  same  as  the  sweet 
orange  and  pomelo  box.  Opinions  differ,  however,  as  to 
the  depth.  Some  hold  that  the  inside  measurement  should 
be  six  inches  for  each  half,  while  others  believe  that  it 
should  be  5  3-4  inches  inside,  so  that  when  strapped  together 
they  measure  12  1-2  inches  outside,  the  same  as  the  standard 
sweet  orange  box.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down  which  should 
govern  in  this  matter,  but  the  latter  size  is  preferable, 
particularly  when  mixed  shipments  of  sweet  oranges  or 
pomelos  and  mandarin  oranges  are  made  in  carload  lots. 
If  boxes  of  different  outside  measurements  are  used,  it 
complicates  the  loading  of  the  car. 

In  Louisiana,  the  China  mandarin  is  a  favorite  va- 
riety, and  it  is  frequently  shipped  to  the  New  Orleans 
market  in  ordinary  sweet  orange  boxes.  The  fruit  is  cut 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  435 

with  leafy  twigs,  four  or  five  inches  long,  and  packed  in 
the  boxes.  Before  displaying  them  on  their  stands  the 
dealers  frequently  string  them  together. 

The  California  standard  lemon  box  is  used  both  in 
California  and  Florida  for  lemons  and  the  larger  limes. 
It  measures  1 1-2x14x25  5-8  inches,  inside  measurements. 
While,  as  noted  above  the  lemon  box  is  sometimes  used 
for  limes,  it  is  not  suited  to  the  shipping  of  the  small- 
sized  Mexican  limes  grown  in  Florida  and  other  citrus 
districts.  The  best  package  for  these,  one  occasionally 
seen  in  the  markets,  is  the  six,  ten-pound  basket  carrier, 
such  as  is  commonly  used  for  tomatoes  and  other  vege- 
tables. They  are  generally  packed  without  wrapping  and 
the  ten-pound  basket  is  a  convenient  receptacle  for  hand- 
ling them  in  the  retail  trade. 

FLORIDA  STANDARD  ORANGE  AND  POMELO  BOXES. 

121-2x121-2x265-8    inches    outside;    12x12x247-8    inches 
inside — if  heads  and  partition  are  7-8  inch  thick. 

Ends   and   partition 3   pieces,    7-8x12x12  inches. 

Sides,  top  and  bottom  ...  .4  pieces,  12x265-8x1-4  inches. 
Straps  3  pieces,  half  round,  54x3-4  inches. 

HALF  ORANGE  AND  POMELO  BOXES. 

Ends    2  pieces,  7-8x12x12  inches. 

Sides,  top  and  bottom  ...  4  pieces,  12x13  7-8x1-4  inches. 
Straps 2  pieces,  half  round,  54x3-4  inches. 

FLORIDA    STANDARD    MANDARIN    STRAP. 

Ends  and  partitions 6  pieces,  7-8x12x5  3-4  inches. 

Sides 4  pieces,  14x26  5-8x5  3-4  inches 

Tops  and  bottoms   4  pieces  1-4x26  5-8x12  inches. 

Straps 3  pieces,  half  round,  54x3-4  inches. 


436  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

LIME    CARRIER. 

Carrier  holding  six  ten-pound  baskets. 

KUMQUAT    CARRIER. 

Strawberry  crate  holding  16  or  24  or  32  cups. 

CALIFORNIA    STANDARD    ORANGE    BOXES. 

11  1-2x11 1-2x26  inches. 

Ends    3  pieces,  11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2  inches. 

Ends    3  pieces,  11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2  inches. 

Sides   8  pieces,  1-4x5  1-4x26  inches. 

Cleats   2  pieces,  3-8x11-16x11 1-4  inches. 

STANDARD  ORANGE  BOXES. 

11 1-2x11 1-2x26  inches. 

Ends   3  pieces,  11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2  inches. 

Sides  and  bottoms 9  pieces,  1-4x3  1-2x26  inches. 

Tops   2  pieces,  1-4x5  l-4x2o  inches. 

Cleats 2  pieces,  3-8x11-16x11 1-4  inches. 

STANDARD  ORANGE  BOXES. 

11 1-2x11 1-2x26  inches. 

Ends  8  pieces,  11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2  inches. 

Tops  and  bottoms  and  sides,  12  pieces,  1-4x3  1-2x26  inches. 
Cleats   2  pieces,  3-8x11-16x11 1-4  inches. 

HALF  ORANGE  BOXES. 

53-4x111-2x26  inches. 

Ends   3  pieces,  11-16x5  3-4x11 1-2  inches. 

Slats    6  pieces,  1-4x5 1-4x26  inches. 

Cleats   2  pieces,  3-8x11-16x11 1-4  inches. 


HANDLING  THE   CITRUS   CROP.  437 

HALF  ORANGE  BOXES. 

5  3-4x11  1-2x26  inches. 

Ends 3  pieces,  11-16x5  3-4x11  1-2  inches. 

Tops  and  bottoms 6  pieces,  1-4x3  1-2x26  inches. 

Sides 2  pieces,  1-4x5  1-4x26  inches. 

Cleats 2  pieces,  3-8x11-16x11  1-4  inches. 

HALF  ORANGE  BOXES. 

11  1-2x11  1-2x13  inches. 

Ends 2  pieces,  11-16x11  1-2x11  1-2  inches. 

Slats 8  pieces,  1-4x5  1-4x13  inches. 

Cleats 2  pieces,  3-8x11-16x11  1-4  inches. 

STANDARD   LEMON   BOX. 

10  1-2x14x25  5-8  inches  inside. 

Ends ." 3  pieces,  11-16x10  1-2x14  inches. 

Sides 2  pieces,  1-4x9  7-8x27  inches. 

Tops  and  bottoms 4  pieces,  1-4x6  3-4x27  inches. 

Cleats 2  pieces,  3-8x3-4x13  1-2  inches. 

All  materials  which  enter  into  the  construction  of 
packages  for  citrus  fruits  should  be  bright,  clean  and 
well  seasoned.  All  similar  parts  should  be  of  uniform 
size.  Yellow  pine  is  commonly  used  in  Florida.  Though 
both  solid  and  paneled  heads  are  in  use,  the  latter  are 
more  common  in  Florida,  while  in  California  the  solid 
heads  are  at  present  used  almost  entirely.  The  solid  heads 
are  preferred  by  some  because  of  the  greater  solidity  of 
the  box,  but  when  expressmen  and  others  have  once 
handled  boxes  with  the  paneled  heads,  they  dislike  very 
much  to  have  anything  to  do  with  solid-headed  boxes. 

If  the  edges  of  the  sides  used  for  boxes  are  rounded 
off  with  a  spokeshave  or  plane,  it  adds  much  to  the  tidy 
appearance  of  the  package. 


438  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  strips  used  for  strengthening  the  package  m 
Florida  are  usually  made  from  the  outside  of  birch  and 
are  brought  in  from  Maine.  By  some,  strips  of  thin, 
rounded  cypress  are  used,  but  they  are  rather  too  brittle 
to  come  into  general  favor.  In  a  few  instances  the  long 
petioles  of  the  leaves  of  the  saw  palmetto  are  used.  They 
must  be  used  while  green. 

Making  Packages.  It  is  essential  that  the  boxes  used 
for  shipping  citrus  fruits  should  be  strong  and  well  made. 
The  fruit  is  heavy,  and  the  box  must  therefore  be  ca- 
pable of  standing  a  considerable  amount  of  strain.  Wire 
nails  should  be  used.  All  stained  or  discolored  pieces 
should  be  discarded,  so  that  all  boxes,  when  completed, 
may  be  bright,  clean  and  attractive. 

For  making  boxes  a 
table  such  as  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  93  A.,  may 
be  used.  The  cleats 
tacked  upon  the  top 
should  be  about  one 
inch  square  and  just 
far  enough  apart  to  ad- 
mit the  ends  and  par- 
tition. For  making 
Florida  standard  or- 
ange boxes,  with  one- 
inch  heads,  the  distance 
from  center  to  center  of 
the  groves  between 
the  cleats  should  be  ex- 
actly thirteen  inches. 

Figr.  92.    Making  crates.  .  . 

Variations  in  the  thick 
ness  of  the  heads  or  the  size  of  the  compartments  will 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  439 

render  it  necessary  to  change  the  position  of  the  cleats, 
but  they  must  always  be  so  adjusted  that  the  finished 
box  will  have  two  compartments  of  exactly  the  same  di- 
mensions. The  slightest  variation  increases  the  difficul- 
ties of  packing.  Instead  of  using  cleats,  grooves  may 
be  cut  in  the  table  top. 

Fig.  93,  B.,  illustrates  a  frame  for  making  citrus 
boxes  invented  by  W.  S.  Hart,  of  Hawks'  Park,  Fla.,  used 
by  Cyrus  W.  Butler,  of  St.  Petersburg,  Fla.,  and  others. 
It  has  many  desirable  points  to  recommend  it.  To 
make  this  frame  four  pieces  of  board  and  three  steel 
springs  are  required.  The  baseboard  should  be  somewhat 
longer  than  the  length  of  the  box  and  not  quite  so  wide. 
The  upright  pieces  should  not  equal  the  depth  of  the  box 
in  length.  They  should  be  slightly  wider  than  the  base- 
board, and  should  be  rounded  off  on  one  edge  and  one 
side.  They  should  be  firmly  attached  to  the  baseboard 
with  wood  screws.  The  springs  are  placed  against 
these  so  that,  when  the  heads  are  dropped  down  against 
the  uprights,  they  will  hold  them  firmly  in  place.  It  is 
preferable  that  one  of  the  end  springs  be  a  stiff  spring 
with  a  coil  so  as  to  hold  one  head  very  firmly  in  place. 
The  distance  between  the  uprights  must  be  carefully 
adjusted  according  to  the  box  to  be  made,  for  the  reasons 
given  above.  By  means  of  this  frame,  boxes  may  be  well 
and  accurately  made,  there  being  no  danger  that  the 
center  head  or  partitions  will  be  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
or  so  to  one  side  or  the  other  of  the  middle  of  the  box. 

The  directions  for  making  an  orange  box,  as  given 
by  the  Florida  Fruit  Exchange,  are  full  and  explicit. 
They  are  as  follows:  "Put  heads  in  frame  with  grain  of 
wood  running  horizontal.  Then  nail  on  the  first  side, 
by  putting  two  nails  in  each  head.  Then  put  on  hoops 


440 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


by  putting  ends  of  hoops  at  longitudinal  center  or  sides 
over  the  heads.  Nail  with  two  nails.  The  hoops  pro 
jecting  opposite  from  where  the  operator  stands.  Turn 
box  over  towards  operator.  Put  on  side  No.  2.  Bend 
hoops  down  and  put  four  nails  in  heads.  Two  nails  in 
center  piece,  about  one  and  a  half  inches  from  edge  of 
box,  and  should  be  so  nailed  as  to  be  easily  removed.  Turn 
box  toward  operator,  place  on  side  No.  3,  bend  down 
hoops,  put  in  four  nails,  ends  and  center  piece.  Turn  box 
toward  operator.  Bend  hoops  neatly  over  the  open  side 
and  fasten  at  place  of  beginning  on  side  No.  1,  with  one 

r^  nail   half  driven   in. 

Then  this  can  be 
easily  drawn  when 
box  is  full  and  side 
No.  4  put  on  just  as 
side  No.  3.  No.  4 
becomes  the  bottom 
of  the  box  and  No.  2 
the  top  for  opening." 


In  making  boxes 
with  the  frame  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  93,  the 
three  sides  and  the 
strips  or  hoops  are 
put  on  as  described 
above,  after  which 
the  box  is  drawn  off 
the  frame  and  the 
loose  end  of  the 

strips  is  then  temporarily  tacked  down. 

When  large  quantities  of  fruit  are  to  be  handled,  it 

is  well  to  have  a  considerable  number  of  boxes  made  up 

in  advance  of  the  picking  season. 


Fig.  93.  A,table  for  making  citrus  boxes. 
B,  a  frame  used  for  the  same  purpose. 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  ±±l 

Paper.  The  paper  used  for  wrapping  citrus  fruits 
should  be  thin  and  strong.  Frequently  the  wrappers  sup- 
plied are  so  thin  and  weak  that  the  fruit  cannot  be 
wrapped  and  packed  without  breaking  the  paper.  The 
paper  serves  as  a  protection  to  the  fruit  and  should  sur- 
round the  fruit  intact  when  snugly  placed  in  the  box. 

The  size  should  be  varied  according  to  the  diameter 
of  the  fruit,  but  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  allow  enough 
margin  for  a  good  twist.  The  following  sizes  are  approx- 
imately correct: 

Fruits  per  ~box.  Size  of  paper. 

36-  46  16  x  16  inches. 

54-64  14  x  14  inches. 

72-  96 12  x  12  inches. 

112-150  11  x  11  inches. 

176-200  10  x  10  inches. 

216-226-252  9  x  9  inches. 

270-360  8  x  8  inches. 

Paper  printed  with  a  suitable  design  and  the  name 
and  address  of  the  grower  is  somewhat  more  expensive 
than  fancy  paper,  but  fruit  wrapped  with  such  paper  pre- 
sents a  much  more  attractive  appearance  than  if  plain 
paper  is  used.  Colored  and  fringed  paper  is  also  some- 
times used  to  advantage.  The  Italian  lemons  shipped  to 
this  country  are  usually  wrapped  in  colored  and  fringed 
paper.  Note  the  appearance  of  the  boxes  shown  in  plate. 

Packing  Conveniences.  The  fruit  runs  out  from  the 
sizer,  each  size  in  its  own  bin.  The  box  is  placed  on  a 
table  of  convenient  height  by  the  side  of  the  bin  so  that 
the  packer  can  readily  reach  the  fruit.  When  the  end 
of  the  box  nearest  the  bin  is  packed,  it  is  picked  up  and 


442 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


reversed  so  as  to  bring  the  empty  compartment  close  to 
the  bin.  The  labor  of  lifting  the  half-filled  box  is  con- 
siderable, besides  time  is  wasted. 

A  handy  table  used  by  W.  S.  Hart,  Hawks'  Park, 
Fla.,  who  has  one  of  the  best  equipped  and  most  conven- 
iently arranged  packing  houses  in  Florida  is  shown  in 

Fig.  94.  The  table  is 
solidly  built,  the  legs 
being  2x4  inches. 
The  front  pair  of 
legs  are  provided 
with  double  castors. 
The  top  slopes  to- 
ward the  packer  and 
upon  it  is  a  second 
revolving  top,  Fig.  94, 
C.  In  the  center  of 
the  second  top  is  a 
groove  to  receive  the 
center  hoop  of  the 
box  that  it  may  sit 
level.  The  revolving  top  is  held  fast  by  a  pin,  B.,  coming 
up  through  the  lower  top  and  into  the  upper  one,  and 
when  it  is  desired  to  turn  the  top,  the  spring  is  bent  down, 
the  top  is  revolved  and  the  spring  is  released.  The  pin 
or  stop  is  attached  to  a  wooden  spring,  A. 

Small  trays  should  be  provided  for  holding  the  wrap- 
ping paper.  The  bottom  should  be  made  from  a  piece  of 
board,  slightly  larger  than  the  paper.  The  back  should 
be  of  1-2  inch  board,  two  inches  high,  and  the  sides  of  the 
same  material,  and  sloping  off  in  front.  The  paper  can 
be  placed  in  these  trays  and  the  backs  and  sides  will  pre- 
vent, in  some  measure,  its  being  blown  about  by  the  wind. 


Fig.  94. 


Packing  table. 


A,  spring.    B, 
stop.    C,  revolving  table 


Plate  XXIX. 


.  A.     A  well-packed  box  of  Sweet 
Oranges,  176  in  pack. 


Fig.  B.     Shelf  paper  used  in  packing 

oranges.      A  fancy  package   of   fancy 

fruit,   126   in  pack. 


444  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Packing.  After  accurately  sizing  the  fruit,  previous 
to  which  it  has  been  properly  graded  and  cured,  it  is 
ready  for  packing.  The  packer  grasps  a  piece  of  paper 
with  the  tips  of  his  fingers,  so  as  to  leave  it  spread  out  in 
bis  hand,  with  the  right  hand  he  places  a  fruit  on  the 
paper  in  the  palm  of  his  left  hand,  and  then  with  the 
right  draws  the  edges  together,  giving  them  a  dexterous 
twist  to  hold  it  in  place.  It  is  then  placed  in  position 
in  the  box. 

The  first  two  layers  of  fruit  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box  (the  top  when  opened),  should  have  the  twists  on  the 
paper  upward,  afterwards  they  should  be  turned  down. 
Each  layer  should  be  snugly  packed  and  each  fruit  gently 
but  firmly  placed  in  position.  If  a  system  of  packing  dia- 
grams is  used  and  the  boxes  are  properly  made,  each  in- 
dividual fruit  has  its  own  special  place  in  the  box  into 
which  it  should  fit  snug  and  tight. 

When  packing  is  completed  the  fruit  should  stand 
about  one-half  inch  above  the  sides  of  the  box.  Mandarin 
oranges  should  project  less,  rather  than  more. 

If  linings  are  used,  a  good  quality  of  shelf  paper 
should  be  secured  for  the  purpose.  It  should  be  cut  into 
lengths  of  11  inches  and  should  be  about  Sl/2  inches 
wide.  It  may  be  glued  to  the  inner  edges  of  the  box,  or 
it  may  be  folded  about  two  and  a  half  inches  back  from 
the  straight  edge.  Place  it  in  place  so  that  the  first  layer 
of  oranges  will  rest  upon  it  and  hold  it  in  place. 
The  lower  box  in  Plate  XXIX  shows  the  lining  paper  cov- 
ering one-half  the  box,  while  from  the  other  it  is  thrown 
back  to  show  the  fruit.  Colored  paper  may  be  used,  but 
pure  white  paper  is  very  neat  and  attractive.  Colored 
paper  is  open  to  the  objection  that  a  slight  amount  of 
moisture  causes  the  color  to  run. 


Plate  XXX. 


A    well-packed   half-strap   of   136   Dancy   Mandarin   Oranges 


446 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Packing  Diagrams.  That  the  fruit  may  exactly  fill 
the  box  it  must  not  only  be  properly  sized,  but  each  fruit- 
must  be  placed  in  position  in  the  box  according  to  a  defi- 
nite arrangement.  These  arrangements  are  commonly 
referred  to  as  diagrams.  Each  layer  contains  a  certain 
number  of  fruit  placed  in  position.  The  fruit  in  the  next 
layer  above  should  never  rest  directly  upon  the  individ- 
ual fruits  in  the  layer  below,  but  should  be  placed  so  as 
to  come  between  two  or  more  fruits  with  a  tendency  to 
spread  them.  With  the  fruit  placed  so  that  the  spaces  or 
joints  are  broken,  the  contents  of  the  box  are  solidly 
packed  and  yet,  retain  a  certain  amount  of  elasticity. 

The  following  tables  give  the  size  of  the  fruit,  the 
number  of  layers,  their  arrangement  and  the  number  of 
fruits  in  each  layer  for  the  packing  systems  now  com- 
monly used  in  Florida  and  California: 

FLORIDA  SWEET  ORANGE  PACKS. 


No.  and   Diameter 
Size    1    of  Fruit 

No.  of 
Layers 

HOW  PACKED 

96 

31-2 

31—  4. 

4 
4 

Layers  1 
Layers  1 

and  3=12  fruits;  layers  2  and  4=12. 
and  3=14  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=14. 

126 

l—  4: 

31-8 

rr 

5 

Layers    1, 
4=12. 

3    and    5=13    fruits;    layers    2   and 

150 

3    1-16 

5 

Layers    1, 
4=15. 

3    and    5=15    fruits  ;    layers   2    and 

176 

2  15-16 

5 

Layers    1, 

3    and    5=18    fruits;    layers    2    and 

4=17. 

200 

2  13-16 

5 

Layers    1, 

3    and    5=20    fruits;    layers   2   and 

4=20. 

216 

2  11-16 

6 

Layers  1, 

3  and  5=18  fruits-;  layers  2,  4  and 

6=18. 

226 

2    9-16 

5     1  Layers    1, 

3   and    5=23    fruits  ;    layers   2    and 

4=22. 

252 

2     7-16         6      Layers  1, 

3  and  5=21   fruits;  layers  2,  4  and 

| 

6=21. 

HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 
FLORIDA    POMELO    PACKS. 


447 


No.  and 
Size 

Diamter  of 
Fruit 

No.  of 
Layers 

3 
3 
3 
3 

4 
4 
4 
4 

HOW  PACKED 

28 
36 
46 
54 
64 
72 
80 
96 

5  1-4 
5 
4  3-4 
4  1-2 
4  1-4 
4  1-8 
4 
3  5-8 

Layers  1  and  3=5  fruits  ;  layer  2=4.* 
Layers  1  and  3=(5  fruits  ;  layer  2=6. 
Layers  1  and  3=8  fruits  ;  layer  2=7. 
Layers  1  and  3=9  fruits  ;  layer  2=9. 
Layers  1  and  3=8  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=8. 
Layers  1  and  3=9  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=9. 
Layers  1  and  3=10  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=10. 
Layers  1  and  3=12  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=12. 

76 

90 

120 

168 

216 


60 

76 

90 

106 

120 

136 

144 


FLORIDA    SATSUMA    MANDARIN    PACKS. 


3  1-4 
3 

2  3-4 
2  1-2 
2  1-4 


Layers  1  and  3=13  fruits ;  layer  2=12. 
Layers  1  and  3=15  fruits ;  layer  2=15. 
Layers  1  and  3=20  fruits  ;  layer  2=20. 
Layers  1  and  3=21  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=21. 
Layers  1  and  3=27  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=27. 


FLORIDA    MANDARIN    ORANGE    PACKS. 


3  1-2 
3  1-4 
3 

2  3-4 
2  1-2 
2  3-8 
2  1-4 


3  jLayers  1  and  3=10  fruits  ;  layer  2=10. 

3  (Layers  1  and  3=13  fruits  ;  layer  2=12. 

3  ILayers  1  and  3=15  fruits  ;  layer  2=15. 

3  Layers  1  and  3=18  fruits  ;  layer  2=17. 

3  Layers  1  and  3=20  fruits  ;  layer  2=20. 

3  (Layers  1  and  3=23  fruits  ;  layer  2=22. 

4  'Layers  I  and  3=18  fruits  ;  layers  2  and  4=18 

LEMONS    AND    LIMES. 


210         2  3-4 
250         2  5-8 
270         2  1-2 
300         2  3-8 
360         2  1-4 
420         2-2% 

5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 

Each  layer,  21  fruits. 
Each  layer,  25  fruits. 
Each  layer,  27  fruits. 
Each  layer,  25  fruits. 
Each  layer,  30  fruits. 
Each  layer,  35  fruits. 

No.  in  Box 
112  
126          .    . 

CALIFORNIA    SIZES    OF    ORANGES. 
Inches  in  Diameter 
3  2-8 

3  1-8 

150  
176  
200  
216  
250  

.3 

27-8 

2  6-8 
2  5-8 
.  2  4-8 

800.. 

..2  3-8 

This  4 — 5  or  5 — 4  pack  is  well  adapted  to  all  sizes  up  to  64. 


448 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Headers.  It  is  necessary  that  the  fruit  should  be 
absolutely  tight  and  solid.  To  this  end,  it  is  quite 
essential  that  the  fruit  stand  one-half  to  three-quarters 
of  an  inch,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  fruit,  above  the 
sides  of  the  box  when  packed.  Then  when  the  head  is 
placed  on  and  pressed  down,  the  fruit  will  not  jostle  or 
shift  in  transit,  provided  it  has  been  well  cured. 

Various  types  of  headers  or  presses  are  in  common 
use.  Most  of  these  are  home-made  and  quite  simple  in 
construction.  Two  different  types  are  shown  in  figures 
95  and  96. 

The  first  of  these  is 
used,  and  was  made  by 
a  blacksmith,  accord- 
ing to  plans  provided 
by  Mr.  P.  J.  Bayley,  of 
Largo,  Fla.  The  box 
is  placed  on  the  frame 
under  the  curved  up- 
rights. The  strip  hoop, 
which  until  now  has 
been  tacked  down,  is 
loosened  and  the  head 
or  cover  is  placed  in 
position.  The  foot  is 
placed  on  the  lever 
attached  to  the  spring 
shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. The  whole  top 
frame  then  moves 

down  on  to  the  box  as  the  foot  is  passed  down.  A  set  of 
notches  catch  and  hold  the  lever,  thus  sustaining  the 
pressure  on  the  cover.  Three  cross-pieces  between  the 


Fig.  95.    Header,  or  press,  used  by  P.  J. 
Bayley,Largro,  Fla. 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 


449 


top  bars  press  down  just  inside  the  ends  and  to 
one  side  of  the  partition  of  the  box.  The  top  is  then  nailed 
down,  the  hoops  are  placed  on  and  the  box  is  complete. 
The  other,  shown  in  Figure  96,  is  much  simpler  in  con- 
struction. Two  pieces  of  curved  metal  are  loosely  at- 
tached to  a  pair  of  horizontal  pieces  of  wood,  which  are 
held  together  at  the  outer  end  by  a  cross-strip  at  the  ends. 


Fig.  96.   Press  used  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Hart  for  putting-  heads 
on  orange  boxes. 


At  the  inner  end  they  are  attached  to  a  horizontal  piece 
by  two  links.  The  upper  horizontal  piece  against  the 
wall  is  nailed  firmly  in  place,  while  the  lower  one  is  at- 
tached to  it  by  a  link  at  each  end.  This  allows  some  play, 
necessary  to  the  smooth  working  of  the  header.  The 
pieces  of  curved  metal  are  just  long  enough  to  fit  inside 
of  the  ends  without  resting  on  the  partition.  In  nailing 
the  cover  on  the  box,  the  operator  aits  down  on  the  outer 

16 


450  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

strip,  his  weight  presses  the  head  down,  whereupon  it  is 
nailed  in  place. 

Any  man  of  ordinary  ingenuity  can  readily  make  a 
simple  press  of  some  description  to  press  the  heads  into 
place.  They  may  not  be  so  good  as  those  described  above, 
but  will  be  just  as  efficient. 

Packing  and  Shipping  Don'ts.  Every  separate  step 
in  preparing  the  fruit  for  market  should  increase  its  value 
by  at  least  the  cost  of  the  labor  expended  and  the  ma- 
terials used.  But,  strange  to  say,  the  money  value  of  the 
crop  is  frequently  greater  as  it  hangs  on  the  trees  than  it 
is  after  it  has  been  gathered,  and  made  ready  for  market. 
In  many  cases  the  actual  worth  of  the  fruit  is  decreased 
at  every  separate  step  in  the  process  of  preparing  it  for 
market.  The  value  is,  too  often,  lessened  by  careless  hand- 
ling, by  unbusinesslike  methods. 

The  author  has  had  the  opportunity  on  a  number  of 
different  occasions  of  examining  citrus  fruits  in  the  mar- 
ket, and  has  seen  boxes  of  fruit  showing  proof  of  many  of 
the  practices  condemned  in  the  following  suggestions: 

Never  place  'bright  and  russet  fruit  in  the  same  box. 

Do  not  pack  inferior  grades  of  fruit  and  stencil  it 
fancy.  No  one  is  deceived  thereby  and  the  shipper  loses 
in  the  end. 

Do  not  pack  different  sizes  in  the  same  box. 

Do  not  wrap  oranges  with  three  or  four  pieces  of 
paper  to  bring  them  up  to  size. 

Do  not  pack  fruit  until  it  has  been  properly  sized. 

Do  not  pack  and  ship  uncured  fruit. 

Do  not  pack  slack  boxes.  The  buyer  is  honestly  en- 
titled to  a  full  box  of  fruit. 

Do  not  stencil  packages  falsely.  For  instance,  do  not 
mark  200  on  a  box  containing  150  fruits. 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  451 

In  each  box  place  only  fruit  of  uniform  grade  and 
ripeness.  The  boxes  should  not  be  falsely  faced  and  poor 
fruit  placed  in  the  centers.  The  outer  layers  should  fairly 
represent  the  contents  of  the  box.  False  packing  of  any 
kind  soon  becomes  known  in  a  market. 

Don't  criticise  the  commission  merchant  too  severely, 
for  there  is  too  frequently  a  vast  difference  between  the 
fruit  in  the  packing  house  and  the  same  fruit  when  it 
arrives  in  the  market. 

Don't  ship  fruit  to  unknown  commission  men  with- 
out first  investigating  their  standing. 

Stenciling.  As  soon  as  the  covers  have  been  placed 
upon  the  boxes  they  are  ready  to  be  stenciled  or  labeled. 
Fancy  pasters  are  sometimes  placed  on  the  ends  of  the 
boxes.  In  California  this  is  commonly  done,  in  Florida 
ir  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Upon  the  end 
of  the  box  there  should  be  stamped  the  grade  of  fruit,  the 
name  of  the  variety,  the  number  which  also  indicates  the 
size,  the  consignee,  and  if  the  fruit  is  of  fine  grade,  the 
namt'  and  address  of  the  consignor.  Growers  whose  names 
have  won  a  place  in  the  markets  frequently  place  their 
private  brand  only  upon  first-class  fruit,  while  all  other 
fruit  is  shipped  without  it. 

While  it  is  best  for  a  shipper  not  to  stamp  inferior 
fruit  with  his  name,  on  the  other  hand,  all  fruit  that  is 
sound  and  salable  should  bear  his  name.  His  reputation 
will  suffer  no  injury,  if  he  honestly  stamps  the  grade  of 
fruit  on  the  box.  Fruit  that  will  not  carry  and  is  not  of 
good  quality  should  not  be  shipped.  Bruised  fruit, 
thorned  fruit,  cracked  fruit,  creased  fruit,  fruit  showing 
distinct  marks  of  die-back,  fruits  touched  by  frost,  should 
go  in  the  cull  heap.  This  done,  and  after  careful  grading 


452 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


and  selection  of  that  which  is  shipped,  no  grower  need 
fear  to  have  his  name  appear  on  his  packages. 

When  properly  stamped,  the  ends  of  the  box  should 
appear  somewhat  like  this: 


176. 


FANCY  BRIGHT,  JAFFA. 


176. 


Consigned  to 


Grown  by 


[Trade-mark  ] 


Packing  Houses.  Every  grower  of  citrus  fruits  has 
his  own  ideal  of  a  packing  house,  whether  he  has  that 
ideal  house  or  not.  There  are  as  many  different  kinds 
as  there  are  growers.  Hence,  it  is  not  possible  to  describe 
an  ideal  packing  house,  and  the  attempt  will  not  be  made 
at  this  time. 

The  capacity  of  the  packing  house  depends  upon  the 
quantity  of  fruit  to  be  handled.  The  floor  space  should 
be  ample  to  provide  room  for  storing  the  fruit  before 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP. 


453 


packing,  for  storing  fruit  for  a  short  time  after  packing, 
for  making  boxes,  for  storing  boxes  and  box  materials, 
for  headers  or  presses,  for  the  sizer,  and  yet  leave  sufficient 
room  for  moving  about.  The  boxes  may  be  made  and  the 
materials  and  made-up  boxes  may  be  stored  on  the  sec- 
ond floor  of  the  building,  but  this  is  practically  all  the 
second  story  can  be  used  for. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  fruit  should  enter  at  one  end 
of  the  packing  house  and  as  it  passes  through  the  several 
processes  of  grading,  curing,  sizing  and  packing,  it  should 
move  toward  the  opposite  end.  Sometimes  it  is  possible 
to  have  the  fruit  move  gradually  downward  from  the 
point  of  entrance  to  the  place  of  exit,  and  this  is  always 
advisable,  as  it  saves  much  hard  labor  in  lifting  and  hand- 
ling the  fruit. 


Fig.  97.     Packing  house  of  P.  J.  Bayley. 

Fig.  97  is  an  illustration  of  the  packing  house  of  P. 
J.  Bayley,  Largo,  Fla.  The  building  is  rectangular,  with 
a  lean-to  on  one  side  (not  shown  in  the  figure),  in  which 


454  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  boxes  are  made.  The  fruit  is  delivered  at  the  rear  on 
a  high  platform.  Just  inside,  floor  space  is  provided  for 
storing  the  fruit  in  field  boxes.  The  sizer  occupies  a 
central  position  in  the  room  and  just  inside  the  front  door 
the  fruit  is  packed  and  stenciled  ready  for  shipping.  The 
floor  at  the  front  is  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  allow 
loading  of  the  fruit  into  the  wagon  without  unnecessary 
labor. 

Plate  XXXI  shows  the  packing  house  of  W.  S.  Hart. 
Here  the  fruit  is  delivered  at  the  platform  shown  in  the 
front,  and  to  which  a  flight  of  steps  lead  up.  In  the  corner 
is  a  small  gasoline  engine,  used  in  operating  the  machin- 
ery in  the  packing  house.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  deliv- 
ered, it  is  run  through  the  large  vat-like  washer  standing 
on  the  back  of  the  platform.  From  the  washer  the  fruit 
is  lifted  out  and  placed  on  the  raised  drying  table  at  the 
right-hand  end.  The  bottom  of  this  table  is  composed 
of  slats  and  it  slopes  gently  away  from  the  washer.  From 
this  drying  table  the  fruit  is  gently  rolled  with  a  cloth 
covered  broom  into  field  boxes,  and  lifted  into  the  curing 
racks  inside.  These  run  across  the  end  of  the  lean-to,  at 
the  right  end,  down  the  entire  length  of  the  building. 
From  the  curing  racks  the  fruit  goes  to  the  sizer,  which 
stands  in  the  peak-roofed  portion  at  the  left.  The  packing 
is  done  just  inside  the  door  at  the  left  and  the  heads 
are  placed  on  the  boxes  on  the  platform  at  the  left.  From 
this  platform  the  fruit  is  hauled  to  the  shipping  point. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fruit  travels  somewhat  in  a 
circle.  The  second  story  of  the  left-hand  part  serves  for 
a  store-room  for  materials  and  made-up  boxes,  and  in  this 
room  the  boxes  are  made  as  well. 

Shipping.  The  express  car  is  the  ideal  way  of  ship- 
ping, but  it  is,  unfortunately,  too  expensive.  Hence,  in 


456  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

the  majority  of  cases,  the  shipper  must  fall  back  upon 
the  freight  train.  Most  railroads  in  the  citrus  districts 
run  through  freights.  Citrus  fruits  can  generally  be 
shipped  without  refrigeration,  but  clean,  ventilated  fruit 
cars  should  be  used.  Whenever  possible,  ship  in  carload 
lots.  The  fruit  is  not  handled  so  frequently,  there  is 
not  so  much  confusion  at  the  receiver's  end  of  the  line 
and  rates  are  usually  less  per  box  for  carload  lots. 

The  standard  car  of  oranges,  as  given  by  the  South- 
ern California  Fruit  Growers'  and  Shippers'  Association, 
is  as  follows : 

"Navel  Oranges.  A  standard  car  of  navel  oranges 
to  consist  of  sizes  96's  and  200's,  inclusive;  not  over  15 
per  cent  96's  and  112's.  Any  excess  of  15  per  cent  96's 
and  112's  to  be  considered  off-sizes  and  invoiced  at  a  re- 
duction of  50  cents  per  box.  Sizes  64's,  80's  and  250's, 
navel,  to  be  considered  off-sizes  and  invoiced  at  a  reduc- 
tion of  50  cents  per  box  from  the  price  for  regular  sizes. 
Size  216's  in  navels  to  be  considered  off-sizes  and  invoiced 
at  a  reduction  of  25  cents  per  box. 

"Seedlings,  Mediterranean  Sweets,  etc.  The  standard 
car  of  other  varieties  (except  Valencias  and  Paper-rind 
St.  Michaels)  to  consist  of  sizes  126's  to  250's,  inclusive; 
not  to  exceed  15  per  cent  126's  and  15  per  cent  250's. 
Any  excess  of  15  per  cent  126's  and  15  per  cent  250's  to 
be  considered  off-sizes  and  invoiced  at  a  reduction  of  25 
cents  per  box.  Sizes  of  seedling  oranges,  larger  and 
smaller  than  126's  and  250's,  inclusive,  to  be  considered 
off-sizes  and  invoiced  at  a  reduction  of  25  cents  per  box. 
It  is  understood  that  each  car  of  oranges  may  contain 
a  reasonable  quantity  of  off-sizes  at  the  reduction  named 
above." 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  457 

MARKETING. 

The  ways  in  which  the  fruit  is  disposed  of  may  be 
roughly  divided  into — (1)  Selling  to  a  private  trade. 
(2)  Selling  through  commission  merchants.  (3)  Sell- 
ing through  associations.  Each  person  must  make  his  own 
choice,,  after  carefully  considering  the  merits  of  each 
system. 

The  Private  Trade.  The  fruit  supplied  to  the  private 
trade  must  be  strictly  fancy,  and  first-class  in  every  re- 
spect. It  must  be  neatly  and  carefully  packed,  in  clean, 
neat  packages.  Everything  in  the  appearance  of  the  pack- 
age and  the  quality  of  the  contents  must  be  indicative  of 
a  desire  to  please  and  satisfy  the  taste  of  the  consumer. 

Large  quantities  of  fruit  cannot  be  handled  in  a  pri- 
vate trade.  But  when  a  trade  is  once  established,  there  is 
a  handsome  profit  from  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
boxes. 

The  price  obtained  is,  of  course,  much  above  that 
paid  for  ordinary  packages.  A  fair  price  should  be  set 
on  each  package,  and  if  a  prospective  buyer  does  not  care 
to  pay  that  price,  then  let  him  purchase  elsewhere. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  supply  the  same  kind 
and  grade  of  fruit  each  month  or  year.  Do  not  ship  a 
box  of  oranges  of  superior  quality  to  a  private  customer 
one  month  and  follow  it  up  thirty  days  later  with  a  some- 
what inferior  package.  That  is  likely  to  create  distrust, 
but  let  the  fruit  in  the  different  shipments  be  uniform. 
The  object  should  always  be  to  hold  a  customer,  once  he 
is  secured.  Give  him  fruit  that  will  make  him  want  more 
of  the  same. 

The  fruit,  going  out  as  it  does  in  small  lots  of  one 
to  five  boxes,  must  generally  be  shipped  by  express.  Ex- 
press rates  from  the  citrus  districts  are  high,  hence  the 


458  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

private  trade  is  usually  dependent  for  its  existence  upon 
fruit  consumers  of  considerable  means. 

Commission  Merchants.  The  commission  merchant 
either  directly  or  indirectly  handles  the  greater  portion  of 
the  citrus  fruits  put  on  the  market  in  America.  He  seems 
to  be  a  necessity  in  reaching  the  consumer,  both  in  large 
cities  and  in  out-of-the-way  places.  Much  has  been  said 
against  him,  little  in  his  favor.  We  hear  much  of  the  dis- 
honest commission  man ;  we  hear  little  of  the  dishonest, 
unscrupulous  shipper,  of  the  man  who  puts  up  false  pack- 
ages and  who  ships  boxes,  the  contents  of  which  are  a 
disgrace  to  the  labels  they  bear.  The  truth  of  the  state- 
ment that  the  shipper  is  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  com- 
mission merchant  cannot  be  denied,  the  selling  of  the  fruit 
is  left  entirely  in  his  hands.  Still,  there  are  honest  men 
in  the  commission  business  and  there  are  always  ways  of 
finding  out  whether  a  firm  is  reliable  or  not.  Frequently 
shippers  themselves  are  responsible  for  the  existence  of 
bogus  commission  houses.  It  may  be  well  to  discuss  the 
selling  of  citrus  fruits  through  commission  men  under 
separate  heads. 

Irresponsible  Firms.  Every  now  and  then  one  hears 
of  shippers  who  made  a  consignment  to  a  certain  house 
from  which  no  return  came.  The  loss  might  as  well  be 
placed  on  the  credit  side  of  the  experience  account.  If 
a  shipper  has  been  sending  his  fruit  forward  for  a  number 
of  seasons,  he  should  know  that  his  best  policy  is  to  stick 
to  the  firm  he  knows.  The  new  shipper  should  find  out 
whether  the  firm  is  reliable  or  not.  Too  frequently  the 
fruit  is  picked  and  packed  before  the  shipper  has  the  re- 
motest idea  of  where  or  to  whom  to  send  it.  A  letter  is 
received  giving  glowing  quotations,  guaranteeing  satis- 
faction, smoothly  written  and — well,  the  shipment  is  made 


HANDLING  THE   CITRUS   CROP.  459 

and  never  heard  from.    Know  the  firm  to  whom  you  ship. 
If  they  are  new,  consult  Bradstreet;  enquire  and  go  slow. 

Dividing  Shipments.  Frequently  the  man  with  fifty 
boxes  of  oranges  to  ship  will  consign  them  to  four  or  five 
different  commission  merchants  in  the  same  city.  This 
practice  seldom  pays.  He  has  to  write  four  or  five  ad- 
vices of  shipment  where  one  would  suffice,  and  he  annoys 
and  worries  the  express  and  freight  agents  by  compelling 
them  to  write  out  a  greater  number  of  receipts.  The  fruit 
arrives  in  the  city.  Along  comes  a  small  fruit  dealer  who 
in  a  few  minutes  makes  a  rapid  tour  of  the  commission 
houses.  In  four  or  five  of  them  he  finds  fruit  shipped 
by  Mr.  A.  and  plans  his  campaign  accordingly.  Of  a 
commission  merchant  he  asks  the  price,  then  blandly 
states,  "I  saw  the  same  fruit  down  at —  -  and  they 
quoted  it  to  me  at  twenty-five  cents  less."  Another  comes 
along  and  does  the  same  thing  and  then  another.  Event- 
ually that  commission  merchant  believes  the  tale.  The 
prices  are  cut  and  all  the  fruit  of  that  kind  in  the  mar- 
ket goes  for  less  than  it  should.  Ship  to  one  man  in  a 
city. 

Spasmodic  Shipments.  A  grower  shipping  to  New 
York  learns  that  pomelos  are  fifty  cents  a  box  more  in 
Boston.  He  ships  to  Boston,  and  perhaps  by  the  time 
his  fruit  arrives  the  market  has  dropped  and  he  gets  just 
what  he  was  receiving  in  New  York.  Then  he  hears  of 
better  prices  in  Philadelphia,  ships  there  and  gets  fifty 
cents  less  per  box  than  he  could  have  got  in  New  York. 
This  may  be  somewhat  exaggerated,  but  similar  things 
happen  nearly  every  day.  If  a  small  quantity  of  fruit 
is  to  be  shipped,  choose  a  market  for  it  and  ship  it  there, 
ship  right  along.  The  ups  and  downs  will  average  as 
well  as  the  spasmodic  shipments  will,  and  generally  bet- 


HANDLING  THE  CITRUS  CROP.  461 

ter.  If  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  is  to  be  sold,  distribute 
it  to  two  or  three  markets  and  ship  it  right  along,  week 
after  week,  day  after  day. 

Choose  a  Trade-mark.  If  a  good  grade  of  fruit  has 
been  grown,  it  will  pay  to  select  a  design  and  put  it  on 
the  packages.  Put  up  neat,  honest  packages  and  send 
them  forward.  The  result  in  time  will  be,  "Have  you  any 
of  that  Crown  Brand  to-day?"  "No,  but  a  shipment  is 
due  to-morrow."  "Well,  I'll  wait."  Or  the  reply  may  be, 
"Yes,  we  have  a  shipment  of  one  hundred  boxes."  "What 
is  the  price?"  "Three  dollars  and  fifty  cents."  "Very 
well,  I'll  take  it."  The  buyer  has  not  seen  the  shipment, 
but  he  knows  that  that  Crown  Brand  stands  for  the  best 
quality  of  oranges,  first-class  all  the  way  through,  and 
buys  them  on  their  reputation.  That  sort  of  a  reputation 
pays.  Read  E.  Bean's  letter  again. 

Associations.  The  association  has  been  brought  for- 
ward as  a  substitute  for  the  commission  men  to  do  away 
with  the  middleman  and  to  bring  the  retailer  and  pro- 
ducer into  closer  contact.  Much  can  be  said  in  its  favor 
and  considerable  can  be  said  against  it.  It  possesses 
some  of  the  advantages  of  the  large  corporation  over  the 
small  dealer.  Lower  rates  of  transportation  can  fre- 
quently be  secured  and  fruit  can  be  distributed  to  better 
advantage.  Advertising  can  be  done  better,  and  more 
fruit  can  be  handled.  Uniform  grades  of  fruit  can  be 
put  up,  if  central  packing  houses  are  used,  and  many  other 
desirable  advantages  can  be  secured. 

But  in  practice  the  association  has  not  always  been 
an  unbounded  success.  The  fruit  is  generally  sold  by 
pool  and  this  is  unsatisfactory  to  those  who  grow  fine 

fruit;  result trouble.  Too  frequently  the  salesman  of 

the  association  is  lacking  in  business  capacity  and  ability. 


462  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

It  is  no  easy  matter  to  handle  large  amounts  of  fruit  and 
market  it  advantageously.  Again,  he  may  be  hampered  in 
his  work  by  having  to  please  or  try  to  please  too  many  peo- 
ple. Trouble  and  dissensions  arise  and  the  association, 
however  good  in  theory,  too  frequently,  perhaps,  goes  to 
pieces  in  practice. 

In  California  associations  have  met  with  consider- 
able success  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  there  are  not  more 
of  them  in  existence  in  the  citrus  districts. 


PART  III. 


DISEASES  AND  INSECTS 


CHAPTER  XL. 

FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES. 

While  the  number  of  diseases  affecting  cirtus  fruits 
is  not  nearly  so  large  as  that  affecting  many  other  groups 
of  fruits,  still  they  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  attract 
serious  attention.  As  a  general  thing  they  can  be  suc- 
cessfully combated  by  means  at  the  disposal  of  every 
grower.  Some,  however,  are  due  to  negligence  or  mal- 
treatment. Others  of  these  diseases  are  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  methods  of  cultivation  and  fertilization, 
but  they  may  appear  in  groves  where  the  best  and  most 
intelligent  care  is  given. 

Many  of  the  diseases  are  due  to  the  attacks  of  fungi. 
These  attack  different  parts  of  the  plants — the  roots, 
stems,  branches  or  leaves — and  interfere  with  their  func- 
tions, eventually  bringing  about  the  death  of  the  part 
attacked  and,  in  some  cases,  the  whole  tree  succumbs. 
These  fungi  are  spread  by  means  of  spores  which  bear  the 
same  relation  to  the  fungus  as  seed  does  to  the  higher 
plants.  The  spores  are  scattered  by  the  wind  or  rain 
and  under  favorable  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture, 
grow  and  enter  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  Slender  fungal 
threads,  the  mycelium,  grow  about  in  the  tissues  until 
they  have  obtained  food  enough  and  have  grown  suffi- 
ciently to  produce  spores  again.  These  are  again  scat- 
tered, and  so  the  life  circle  is  completed.  In  the  follow- 
ing pages  diseases  of  this  nature  are  placed  under  the 
heading  of  Fungous  Diseases. 

There  is  another  class  of  disease  which  attack  citrus 
and  other  trees  or  plants.  These  are  intimately  associ- 


466  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

ated  with  the  life  functions  of  the  cells.  These  are 
grouped  under  the  general  name  of  Physiological  Dis- 
eases. 

FUNGUS     DISEASES. 

Foot-rot,,  Gum  Disease,  Mal-di-goma.  So  far  as 
known,  this  disease  occurs  in  nearly  every  citrus  dis- 
trict in  the  world  and  none  of  our  American  centers 
are  free  from  it  entirely.  Its  history  in  Europe  extends 
back  to  about  1845  and  it  worked  destruction  in  the 
groves  of  the  Azores  some  years  previous  to  that  time, 
and,  in  fact,  seems  to  have  been  first  noted  there.  In 
Florida,  it  has  been  responsible  for  the  disappearance 
of  many  of  the  old  sweet  seedling  groves  and  the  discontin- 
uance of  the  use  of  the  sweet  orange  as  a  stock,  as  noted 
in  the  chapter  on  stocks. 

Foot-rot  is  clearly  marked  and  not  likely  to  be  con- 
founded with  any  other  disease..  It  is  confined  to  the 
crown  and  main  roots  of  the  tree,  extending  a  foot  or 
so  above  the  ground  and  downward  along  the  roots.  Its 
presence  is  first  indicated  by  an  exudation  of  gum,  which 
forms  in  drops  on  the  bark  covering  the  diseased  spot. 
Further  examination  at  this  time  reveals  a  brownish 
coloration  of  the  outer  cortex  and  a  decayed  condition 
of  the  inner.  The  affected  areas  emit  a  fetid  odor  simi- 
lar to  that  from  a  decaying  orange.  All  plants,  when 
attacked  by  a  disease,  strive  to  overcome  it,  and  this  the 
orange  tries  to  do  by  cutting  off  the  affected  portion  by 
a  wall  of  new  tissues  similar  to  that  formed  around  an 
ordinary  wound.  Following  this,  the  bark  covering  the 
spot  dries  up,  breaks  away  from  the  adjoining  parts,  and 
drops  off.  The  wood  is  then  found  to  be  decayed  for  a 
short  distance  beneath. 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES. 


467 


Though  the  tree  still  continues  to  bear  fruit,  its  ap- 
pearance is  far  from  healthy;  the  leaves  become  yellow, 

the  twigs  and  young     ^ 

branches  die,  and 
the  whole  tree  as- 
sumes an  unthrifty 
appearance.  Where 
the  affected  tree  can 
be  seen  from  a  dis- 
tance, it  stands  out 
in  marked  contrast 
to  its  neighbors.  Un- 
less the  disease  is 
checked  in  someway, 
the  tree  attacked 
eventually  succumbs 
and  has  to  be  re- 
moved. 

Fortunately,  all 
varieties  of  citrus 
stock  are  not  in  the 
same  degree  subject 
to  this  dreaded  dis- 
ease. In  order  of 
foot-rot  resistance 
they  stand  about 
as  follows :  Sour 
orange,  Citrus  Mga- 
radia;  rough  lemon, 
C.  Limonum;  trifoliate  orange,  C.  trifoliata;  pomelo,  C. 
decumana;  lemon,  C.  Limonum;  sweet  orange,  C.  auran- 
tium.  Roughly,  we  may  class  the  first  four  as  decidedly 
resistant,  the  last  two  as  very  much  subject  to  the  disease. 


Fig.  98. 


Foot-rot  on  crown  roots  and  trunk 
of  sweet  c  range. 


468  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Cattle-penning;  deep-setting;  a  wet,  soggy  soil  con- 
dition; the  use  of  rank,  organic  nitrogenous  fertilizers; 
planting  in  localities  underlaid  with  hard-pan;  faulty 
drainage ;  a  shaded  condition  of  the  soil,  and  many  similar 
circumstances  and  practices  have  been  given  as  the  cause 
of  foot-rot.  While  it  is  not  probable  that  the  disorder 
is  due  to  any  of  these,  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  have 
a  deleterious  effect  on  the  general  health  of  the  tree,  and 
so  act  as  a  predisposing  cause.  A  healthy,  vigorous  tree 
has  all  the  chances  in  its  favor  for  withstanding  the  in- 
roads of  disease,  and  any  decrease  in  its  vitality  simply 
gives  its  enemies  an  opportunity  to  gain  a  foot-hold. 

The  specific  cause  of  the  disease  is  still  in  doubt,  but 
it  is  probably  due  to  some  form  of  vegetable  parasite. 
Prof.  Giovanni  Brioze,*  in  1878,  found  a  fungus,  Fusis- 
porium  limonii,  constantly  associated  with  the  disorder, 
but  was  not  certain  as  to  whether  it  was  the  specific 
cause  or  not.  Regarding  it  he  states:  "But  that  its 
presence  ought  to  accelerate  the  disorganization  of  the 
tissue  and  contribute  to  extend  the  evil,  I  think  I  see 
without  any  doubt." 

As  pointed  out  above,  there  are  man}7  conditions 
which  bear  an  important  relation  to  foot-rot,  and  a  brief 
discussion  of  some  of  these  will  not  be  out  of  place,  (a) 
Cattle-penning  and  pasturing,  so  often  resorted  to  for 
the  purpose  of  fertilizing  the  groves,  is,  to  say  the  least, 
a  questionable  practice.  The  sharp  hoofs  of  the  animals 
cut  and  bruise  the  bark  on  the  crown  roots,  and  thus, 
through  their  agency,  this  possibly  parasitic  disease  may 
be  more  rapidly  carried  from  affected  to  unaffected  trees. 


*  Intorno   al   Mai    Goma   Delgi   Agrumi,    Stations    Chimico-Agraia 
_  erimentale  Di  Roma.     pp.  1-16,  pi.  I.     1878. 
Series  3a  Atta  della  R.  Academia  del  Lincei.) 


Sperimentale  Di  Roma.     pp.  1-16,  pi.  I.     1878.      (Estrata  dal  Vol.  11, 

de 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES  469 

Then,  too,  the  rank  manure  may  act  injuriously,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  there  are  better  means  for  supply- 
ing the  requisite  plant  food  than  this.  In  fact,  we  be- 
lieve that  the  best  orange  is  produced  by  the 
judicious  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  (&)  Close  plant- 
ing is  often  resorted  to  as  a  means  for  shading  the  ground. 
A  moist  or  damp  condition  of  the  soil  is  produced  about 
the  tree,  which,  in  the  warm  citrus  climates,  is  exactly 
suited  to  the  development  of  disease.  It  would  be  de- 
cidedly better  to  provide  a  surface  mulch,  either  by  the 
growing  of  leguminous  crops  or  by  providing  a  mulch  of 
leaves  and  leaf-mold.  Air  would  then  be  freely  admitted, 
and  the  sunlight,  one  of  the  best  germicides  we  have, 
would  be  allowed  to  reach  the  soil,  (c)  The  piling  of 
rubbish,  old  tin  cans,  palmetto  roots,  etc.,  about  the 
trunks  of  trees  is  to  be  strongly  condemned.  Where  a 
mulch  of  leaves  or  grass  is  placed  close  to  the  trunks 
it  should,  from  time  to  time,  be  removed  to  allow  the 
soil  to  dry  out  on  the  surface.  When  banking  with  earth 
as  a  protection  against  frost  is  practiced,  the  banks 
should  be  promptly  removed  in  spring,  (d)  Strict  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  drainage,  that  no  stagnant 
water  be  allowed  among  the  trees.  A  soggy,  ill-drained 
soil  is  not  conducive  to  the  health  of  an  orange  tree,  (e) 
In  sections  where  the  basin  method  of  irrigation  is  used, 
a  cone  of  earth  should  be  banked  against  the  trees  to  keep 
the  water  from  the  trunks.  This  bank  should  be  removed 
shortly  after  irrigating,  (f)  New  groves  should  be  set 
only  on  resistant  stocks  and  where  injury  from  frost  is 
not  feared,  they  should  be  worked  a  considerable  distance 
above  the  ground.  The  disease  frequently  attacks  the 
trunk  above  the  point  of  union,  particularly  if  it  be  close 
to  the  ground. 


470  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Treatment.  This  consists  in  removing,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  detrimental  conditions  to  which  reference  has 
just  been  made  and  particular  attention  should  be  paid 
to  everything  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  grove. 

Carefully  remove  the  earth  from  about  the  tree, 
avoiding  injury  to  the  healthy  roots.  With  a  sharp, 
strong  knife,  cut  out  all  the  diseased  tissue  down  to  the 
healthy  wood.  Burn  the  material  removed.  With  a  brush 
paint  the  freshly  cut  wood  with  solution  No.  (3),  (4),  or 
(5),  or  sprinkle  solutions  Nos.  (4)  or  (5)  over  the  cut 
surfaces  and  the  adjoining  soil. 

Leave  the  earth  removed  until  such  time  as  the  tree 
has  recovered,  and  then  it  would  be  better  to  fill  in  with 
fresh,  porous  earth.  In  closely  planted  groves  remove  a 
sufficient  number  of  trees  to  let  the  light  reach  the 
ground.  These  can  be  set  out  in  another  plot  of  ground. 
Disinfect  cultivators,  plows  and  harrows  with  carbolic 
acid 'after  using  them  in  diseased  groves,  and  before  use 
among  healthy  trees.  As  a  preventive  measure,  use  re- 
sistant stocks,  as  already  indicated,  and  where  trees 
have  died  out,  re-set  with  others  budded  on  sour  orange, 
rough  lemon  or  pomelo,  as  the  soil  conditions  render 
necessary. 

Frequently  trees  may  be  made  to  serve  some  years 
of  usefulness  by  planting  a  number  of  small  resistant 
stocks  around  the  affected  tree  and  inarching  them  above 
the  injured  parts. 

Scab,  Lemon  Scab,  Sour  Orange  Seal).  This  citrus 
disease  attacks  the  sour  orange,  bitter-sweet,  lemon,  Sat- 
suma,  Rangpur  lime,  and  it  has  been  found  slightly  af- 
fecting the  King  mandarin,  the  pomelo  and  kumquat. 
In  some  districts  it  has  become  a  serious  inconvenience 
in  the  production  of  smooth,  marketable  lemons,  but  for- 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES. 


471 


tunately  it  has  not  made  its  way  into  the  California  dis- 
tricts, at  present  the  most  important  in  America. 

While  the 
sour  orange 
is  very  bad- 
ly affected 
by  scab,  lit- 
tle notice  is 
taken  of  the 
disease  on 
that  host,  as 
it  is  used 
principally 
as  a  stock 
on  which  to 
work  other 
varie  ties, 
and  is  usu- 

lllv    Mit    off     Fig-- "•    Scab  on  young- fruit  and  leaves  of  Satsuma. 

when  a  year  or  two  old.  It  is,  however,  a  drawback  in 
the  production  of  healthy,  vigorous  stock.  But  it  is  with 
the  injury  done  to  the  fruit  of  the  lemon  that  we  are  most 
concerned  from  an  economic  standpoint.  Lemons,  to 
sell  well,  must  be  perfectly  bright,  clean  and  smooth, 
and  when  they  are  badly  affected  by  this  disease,  they  are 
rendered  unsalable.  A  rough,  distorted  fruit  finds  no 
place  in  our  markets. 

The  scabby  leaves,  twigs  and  fruit  are  very  charac- 
teristically marked.  Warty,  corky  elevations  cover  the 
surface,  giving  to  it  an  unsightly,  roughened  appearance. 
Often  the  leaves  are  twisted  or  drawn  out  of  shape,  and 
they  are  in  a  considerable  degree  deprived  of  the  power 
to  fulfill  their  natural  functions,  namely:  respiration, 


472 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


transpiration  and  the  assimilation  of  food.  Beneath  the 
warts  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  leaf,  there  is  often  a 
well-marked,  conical  depression,  corresponding  to  the 
elevation  on  which  the  excrescence  is  situated.  Under  the 
warts  on  the  fruit  there  is  an  abnormal  thickening  of 
the  tissue,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  somewhat  conical 
elevations.  Thus  the  corky  portions  are  lifted  above  the 
normal  level  of  the  rind.  The  warts  are  at  first  yellowish, 
then  grayish,  becoming  dusky  in  appearance  as  the  dis- 
ease advances,  until  they  become  almost  black,  and  event- 
ually crack  and  open.  When  the  excrescences  are  iso- 
lated they  are  minute  and  of  the  shape  of  a  cone  or  trun- 
cated cone.  Generally,  however,  they  are  confluent,  pre- 
senting the  appearance  of  a  bark-like  substance  firmly  at- 
tached to  the 
epidermis. 

The  specific 
cause  of  the  dis- 
ease is  a  minute 
parasitic  fun- 
gus, a  species 
ofOladosporium 
described  b  y 
Prof.  F.  Lam- 
son- Scribner  in 
1886,  probably 

Fig.  100.    Spores  and  spore-bearing  parts  of  scab    identical        With 
fungus    (Cladosporium    elegans    penzig).          (j     f>lf>nans    Pen- 
B,  spores.    A,  spore-bearing  parts. 

zig.    The  spores 

are  very  small,  smoky  in  color,  and  usually  one  or  two, 
though  sometimes  three-celled     They  are  borne  on  brown- 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.          473 

ish  colored  sporophores  ( spore- bearing  filaments).  When 
mature,  they  become  detached  and,  through  the  agency 
of  the  wind,  they  are  carried  about  from  one  tree  to  an- 
other. Falling  upon  the  young  leaves  of  their  host,  under 
favorable  conditions  they  germinate  by  sending  out  a  deli- 
cate, slender  tube,  which  enters  the  leaves  and  gives  rise, 
in  due  time,  to  the  well-marked  and  easily  recognized 
diseased  condition. 

Remedies.  The  disease  can  be  successfully  controlled 
by  using  one  of  the  copper  spraying  solutions,  Bordeaux 
mixture  or  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate. 
The  latter  must  receive  the  higher  recommendation,  as  it 
if  less  likely  to  injure  the  tender  leaves  and  blossoms  of 
the  lemon,  but  a  weak  solution  of  Bordeaux  mixture  is 
likely  to  prove  quite  as  efficacious,  without  any  harmful 
results. 

The  question  at  once  arises,  "Am  I  not  likely  to  do 
injury  by  killing  as  well  the  parasitic  species  of  fungi 
that  work  destruction  to  the  various  scales  that  infest 
the  trees?"  This  will  have  to  be  borne  in  mind,  and,  if 
necessary,  follow  the  spraying  with  an  application  of 
whale-oil  soap,  kerosene  emulsion  or  resin  wash.  To  pre- 
vent scab,  spray  three  times.  Give  the  first  application 
just  after  the  petals  have  fallen  from  the  first  blossoms 
and  two  others  inside  the  next  six  weeks.  If  the  disease 
gains  ground  on  the  young  fruit,  further  spraying  will 
be  necessary.  Shoots  of  sour  orange  and  diseased  fruit 
should  be  removed  and  burned. 

Leaf  Spot.  Frequently  upon  the  leaves  of  citrus  trees 
round  dead  spots  are  found.  These  spots  eventually 
break  away,  leaving  the  leaf  tattered  and  torn.  The  fol- 


474 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Fig.   101.    S'pore  ana  spore-bearing-  parts  of 

leaf-spot  fungus.   B,  spore-bearing-  branches. 

A,  spores. 


lowing  description  of  the  disease  will  assist  in  recognizing 
it :  Large,     some- 

what circular, 
yellowish  spots 
are  noticed  on 
the  leaves.  Close 
examination  re- 
veals the  pres- 
ence of  minute 
dark  dots  scat- 
tered thickly 
over  the  discol- 
o  r  e  d  areas. 
These  small, 
dark  spots  con- 
tain the  spores 
of  a  parasitic  fungus,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
The  sporules  are  borne  on  short  filaments  which  are  con- 
tained in  the  brownish-black  conceptacles.  Fig.  101  shows 
some  of  these  conidia  and  basidia,  greatly  enlarged. 

This  fungus  has  been  known  under  two  different 
names.  It  was  described  as  Phyllosticta  adusta  E.  &  M. 
from  the  specimens  collected  by  Dr.  Martin.  Later  it  was 
referred  to  the  genus  Coll&totrichum  and  named  (7.  adust- 
um  E.  It  appears,  however,  to  be  identical  with  Oolleto 
trichum  gloeosporioides  Penz. 

More  recently,  Rolfs  has  demonstrated  that  two  or 
three  diseases,  hitherto  not  investigated,  are  caused  by  the 
same  fungus.  It  is  responsible  for  the  dying  back  of  the 
twigs  of  citrus  trees,  for  the  death  of  the  blossoms  of  the 
lime,  for  the  anthracnose  of  the  lime  and  the  black-spot 
disease  on  the  rind  of  the  lemon.* 


*  More  recently  the  author  has  investigated  a  serious  disease  of 
pomelo  fruit  caused  by  the  same  organism. 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES. 


475 


Treatment.  —  The  disease  can  be  held  in  check  by  spray- 

ing with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture or  ammoniacal  solu- 
tion. 

Ripe-rot  of  Citrus 
Fruits.  Frequently  ripe 
specimens  of  citrus 
fruits,  more  particular- 
ly, perhaps,  oranges  and 
lemons,  show  a  yellow 
covering  of  dust-  like, 
bluish  powder.  If  ob- 
served in  an  earlier 
stage,  the  area  will  be 
whitish,  instead  of  blu- 
ish, later  the  whole  fruit 
ball  becomes  small  and 
shriveled  and  the  powd- 

^J  Substance  OCCUpiCS  a 
relatively  larger  SpaCC. 

The  rotting  of  the  fruit  is  caused  by  a  fungus,  Pemcil- 
lium  lialicum,  closely  allied  to  the  common  blue  mold 
which  forms  on  bread,  and  the  powdery  mass  is  composed 
of  innumerable  spores.  The  white  coating  of  the  fruit,  on 
some  injured  spot,  is  the  "mycelium''  the  vegetative  part, 
which  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  fungus  that  the  roots 
do  to  a  higher  plant.  The  mycelium  grows  into 
and  through  the  tissue  of  the  fruit.  After  de 
veloping  for  some  time  and  reaching  a  certain 
stage  of  growth,  the  fungus  forms  spores.  These  are  vis- 
ible as  the  bluish,  powdery  moss.  The  spores  are  joined 
together  in  the  early  stages  in  bead-like  strings.  As  they 
become  matured,  they  break  off  and  blow  away.  They  are 


Pig.  102.    Leaf-spot  fungus  on  pomelo  leaves. 
The  light  areas  are  the  spots  affected. 


476 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 


WO. 


thin-walled  and  oval  in  outline.  The  upper  portion  of 
Fig.  103  shows  a  number  of  these  spores  much  enlarged. 

The  spores  are 
blown  about  by 
the  wind  and 
fall  upon  the 
fruit.  There  in 
the  presence  of 
moisture  the}7 
start  to  grow,  as 
shown  i  n  the 
lower  half  of 
Fig.  103.  A  slen- 
der tube  is  sent 
out  which  con- 
tinues to  length- 
en. If  it  can  find 
an  entrance  into 
a  fruit  it  grows 
and  develops, 
forming  a  myce- 
lium, and  spores 
are  again  soon 
produced. 

Certain 

weather  conditions  are  particularly  favorable  to  the 
disease.  Hot,  damp  days  and  nights  are  ideal 
for  the  growth  of  the  fungus,  while  cold,  dry  weather 
does  not  favor  its  development. 

The  disease  most  frequently  gains  access  to  the  fruit 
in  some  injured  spot.  A  slight  bruise  is  sufficient.  In- 
sects puncture  the  rind  and  give  a  chance  for  it  to  enter. 
If  fruit  is  improperly  cured  and  tightly  packed  into  the 


Micro-photograph  by  Miss  L.  McCulloch. 

Fig1.  103.     Spores  of  ripe-rot  fungus  above, 
germinating-  spores  below,  greatly  enlarged. 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.          477 

boxes,  it  may  be  injured  and  the  fungus  have  a  chance  to 
attack  the  fruit,  most  usually  developing  where  two  are 
pressed  closely  in  contact.  In  the  field  it  frequently  at- 
tacks fruits  hanging  together  on  the  trees  and  causes  con- 
siderable damage.  In  California,  Woodworth  reports  the 
entrance  of  the  fungus  through  the  navel  end  of  the  Bahia 
orange  as  being  quite  common. 

Treatment.  Fruit  should  be  carefully  handled  and 
packed.  The  fruit  should  be  thoroughly  cured  and  dry 
when  packed.  Carefully  wrap  the  fruit,  using  a  good 
quality  of  paper,  one  not  readily  affected  by  moisture. 
This  will  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease  from  one  fruit 
to  another  in  the  box.  If  the  spores  of  the  fungus  have 
become  abundant  in  the  packing  house,  it  should  be 
tightly  closed  and  fumigated  by  burning  sulphur  in  it. 
Plenty  should  be  used.  Thorough  ventilation  of  the  pack- 
ing house  will  assist  materially.  Cull  fruit  should  not 
be  left  about  to  rot  and  decay.  Decayed  fruit  should  be 
destroyed,  preferably  by  burning. 

Sooty-mold,  Meliola  Camelliae  (Catt.)  Sacc.,  is 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  different  sections 
where  citrus  fruits  are  grown.  It  occurs  as  a  sooty- 
black  covering  on  the  leaves,  fruits  and  twigs  of  many 
plants,  and  is  intimately  associated  with  various  insects 
belonging  to  the  families  Aleyrodidae  Coccidae  and 
Aphididae.  In  Florida  it  follows  Lecanium  oleae  on  Ne- 
rium  oleander  and  Per  sea  Carolinensis  ;  Aphis  gossypii 
on  the  orange,  eggplant,  and  many  other  herbs,  shrubs 
and  trees;  Lecanium  hesperidium,  Ceroplastes  floriden- 
sis,  I  eery  a  purchasi,  Aleyrodes  citri  and  other  insects  on 
citrus  trees.  In  short,  may  be  said  that  it  is  found 
with  all  the  scale  and  allied  insects  which  exude  honey- 
dew  in  any  considerable  quantities. 


478 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


The  fuiigus  is  a  saprophyte, 
and  is  dependent  upon  this  honey- 
dew  for  its  sustenance.  The  in- 
sects already  referred  to  are  gre- 
garious in  their  habits.  Conse- 
quently, the  honey-dew  accumu- 
lates in  considerable  quantities 
on  various  parts  of  the  plant, 
and  in  this  substance  the  fungus 
lives.  The  black  covering  is  com- 
posed of  its  vegetative  threads. 
A  number  of  different  kinds  of  re- 
productive bodies  are  produced, 
and,  through  the  agency  of  the 
wind,  are  carried  about  from  tree 
to  tree.  Wherever  suitable  food 
material  is  found,  there  the  fun- 
gus develops. 


Fig.    104.      Sooty-mold.      A,    Myce 

Hum.     B,   Conidiophores.      C,   Con 

idia    or    spores.       (Enlarged.) 


It  is  when  it  follows  the  at- 
tacks of  the  white  fly,  Aleyrodes 
citri,  or  allied  insects  occurring  in  enormous  numbers  on 
citrus  trees,  that  it  does  the  most  damage.  The  white 
fly  spends  a  great  portion  of  its  life  on  the  under  sides 
of  the  leaves.  The  honey-dew  exuded  by  it  falls  upon 
the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves  beneath  and  upon  the  twigs 
and  the  stem  ends  of  the  fruit.  In  this  honey-dew  the 
fungus  grows  and  soon  covers  the  trees  with  a  thick, 
black,  sooty  covering,  so  that  they  appear  from  a  distance 
as  though  covered  with  a  liberal  application  of  stove- 
black. 

Sunlight  is  necessary  to  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  that  they 
may  carry  out  their  work  in  the  plant's  economy.     The 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.          479 

black  screen  of  fungal  threads  prevents  the  light  from 
reaching  the  leaves.  Their  natural  functions  are  inter- 
fered with  and  the  tendency  is  to  keep  the  tree  in  an  un- 
healthy condition.  Often  the  yield  of  bearing  trees  is 
greatly  lessened  as  a  direct  consequence. 

Bearing  on  the  effects  of  sooty-mold  and  white-fly 
on  citrus  trees,  the  following  remarks  by  H.  A.  Gossard, 
in  Bulletin  67,  Florida  Experiment  Station,  are  of  in- 
terest : 

"The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  a  chemi- 
cal analysis  made  at  my  request  by  Professors  Miller 
and  Blair,  of  three  lots  of  fruit  picked  the  same  day  from 
adjoining  Dancy  tangierine  groves,  both  of  which  were 
infested  with  white-fly  and  had  been  given  practically 
the  same  treatment  as  regards  cultivation  and  fertiliz- 
ing. Fifteen  or  twenty  oranges  were  selected  for  each 
of  the  three  lots,  representing  as  accurately  as  possible 
the  average  condition  as  to  size  and  maturity  on  each 
of  the  three  trees  from  which  they  were  taken. 

"Sample  No.  1  was  from  a  tree  that  had  been  in- 
fested for  several  years  and  had  been  left  to  take  care 
of  itself. 

"Sample  No.  2  was  from  a  tree  about  forty  feet  from 
No.  1  and  was  regularly  and  properly  sprayed  three  or 
four  times  each  year,  but  stood  in  the  row  adjoining  the 
unsprayed  grove,  and  the  insects  could  not  be  prevented 
from  developing  upon  it  in  numbers  sufficient  to  cause 
more  or  less  mold. 

"Sample  No.  3  was  from  a  tree  eighty  feet  from  No.  1 
and  was  properly  sprayed  as  was  No.  2,  but  with  better 
results.  A  few  larvae  were  present  on  the  leaves,  but, 
practically,  white-fly  could  be  considered  wholly  absent. 


480  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Reducing  Sugar—   Total  Sugar  Dextrose—  Citric  Acid- 
No.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Sample  No.  1 2.18  6.71  .425 

Sample  No.   2 2.23  6.25  .394 

Sample  No.  3 2.58  7.91  .445 

"These  samples  were  collected  in  February,  after  they 
had  passed  their  best,  but  it  is  believed  that  they  kept 
their  relative  quality." 

The  immediate  damage  is  to  the  crop.  The 
stem  end  of  the  fruit  becomes  covered  by  the  mold;  it 
colors  irregularly  and,  unless  cleaned  in  some  way,  is 
often  unfit  for  market.  Various  methods  are  used  to  re- 
move the  sooty  covering  from  the  oranges.  Some  use  a 
lidless  box.  Over  the  open  side,  a  piece  of  coarse  sack- 
cloth or  canvas  is  stretched  and  on  this  cross-cut  sawdust 
is  scattered.  The  oranges,  one  or  two  at  a  time,  are  taken 
and  ground  about  on  this  until  the  soot  is  removed. 
Another  machine  consists  of  a  hollow  cylinder  mounted 
on  stationary  posts,  and  having  a  crank  attachment.  This 
is  partially  filled  with  oranges  and  sawdust  and  revolved 
until  the  fruit  is  bright.  Washing  with  a  cloth  or  brush 
is  also  resorted  to,  and  some  simply  use  a  dry  brush. 
Often,  however,  the  oranges  appear  on  the  market  with 
the  mark  of  mold  upon  them.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  if  the  fruit  is  anywise  rough-skinned,  the  fungal 
threads  still  remaining  in  the  depressions. 

The  additional  cost  of  harvesting  and  marketing  a 
crop  of  oranges  is  very  considerably  increased  and  the 
fruit  can  not  help  but  suffer  to  some  extent  from  the  harsh 
treatment  it  often  receives.  Oranges  have  been  noticed 
which  had  been  so  vigorously  cleaned  that  the  epidermis 
had  been  torn  and  the  oil-glands  of  the  rind  laid  open. 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.         481 

This,  together  with  the  injury  occasioned  by  bumping  the 
fruit  about,  is  certain  to  impair  the  keeping  qualities. 

For  washing  the  fruit,  the  cylinder-washer  manu- 
factured by  S.  C.  Warner,  of  Palatka,  Fla.,  is  one  of  the 
best. 

Treatment.  No  method  of  treatment  for  the  fungus 
alone  can  be  recommended,  the  insects  should  be  de- 
stroyed and,  if  this  be  done,  the  fungus  will  disappear, 
as  the  honey-dew  provided  by  the  insects  will  no  longer 
be  present. 

Flyspeck  or  Sooty  Fungus  (  LeptotJiyrium  Pomi 
(Mont,  et  Fr.),  Sacc.)  The  flyspeck  fungus  covers  the 
rind  of  the  citrus  fruits  with  a  superficial  sooty  covering 
of  greater  or  less  extent.  Sometimes  this  covering  is 
almost  continuous  over  considerable  areas,  while  in  other 
cases  it  occurs  in  isolated,  irregular  patches.  When  the 
rind  is  badly  affected,  it  gives  the  fruit  a  blotched  ap- 
pearance far  different  from  the  bright  yellow  or  golden 
hue  of  the  fruit.  The  blotched  appearance  is  caused  by  the 
sooty  patches  alternating  with  patches  of  unspotted  rind. 

On  the  sooty  areas,  large  numbers  of  minute  black 
specks,  each  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  pin  point,  are 
frequently  found.  Generally  they  are  more  .or  less  ag- 
gregated. Sometimes  these  specks  are  found  without  any 
accompanying  sooty  growth,  in  which  case  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  the  sooty  growth  was  at  one  time  present, 
but  eventually  disappeared,  leaving  only  the  small,  black 
spots.  The  sooty  covering  must  not  be  confused  with 
sooty-mold,  so  common  a  companion  of  various  insects, 
as  already  noted.  It  is  entirely  distinct  from  it  and  the 
flyspeck  fungus  is  in  no  way  connected  with  the  attacks 
of  insects  or  their  presence  on  citrus  trees. 

17 


482  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  cause  of  the  trouble  is  a  fungus,  the  scientific 
name  of  which  is  Leptothyrium  Pomi,  common  in  apple 
districts,  where  it  develops  on  th.e  fruit,  both  on  the  tree 
and  in  storage. 

The  sooty  spots  consist  of  a  formation  of  the  fungal 
threads ;  on  the  rind  they  are  black,  but  viewed  under  the 
light,  they  are  light  brown  in  color.  The  minute  spots 
appear  to  consist  of  more  closely-woven  strands  of  fun- 
gus, as  though  a  small  spore  case  were  in  process  of  form- 
ation. Whether  this  is  the  case  or  not,  spores,  by  means 
of  which  most  fungi  are  disseminated  and  propagated, 
have  not  yet  been  discovered  in  this  fungus,  and  appear 
in  all  cases  to  be  entirely  lacking. 

Anything  which  may  be  said  regarding  the  way  in 
which  the  fungus  spreads  must  be  more  or  less  conject- 
ural. The  fungal  threads  may  become  detached  and  blow 
about,  or  it  may  be  that  spores,  not  yet  discovered,  may 
be  produced.  Since  citrus  fruits  frequently  grow  ic 
clusters,  the  fungus  may  easily  spread  from  one  fruit  to 
another. 

So  far  as  has  been  observed,  no  damage  is  done  the 
fruit,  but  when  the  fungus  is  present  in  abundance,  it 
renders  the  fruit  unsightly,  and,  consequently,  depre- 
ciates the  market  value. 

Treatment.  Nearly  all  traces  of  the  fungus  may  be 
removed  if  the  fruit  is  washed,  and  since  it  makes  its 
appearance  about  the  time  the  fruit  matures,  this  is  the 
best  possible  treatment.  It  will  yield  readily  to  an  ap- 
plication of  solution  No.  1,  but  this  treatment  can 
scarcely  be  recommended. 

Melanose.  This  disease  was  first  brought  to  notice 
by  Webber  and  Swingle  in  1896.  It  was  quite  prevalent 
in  the  vicinity  of  Gitra,  Fla.,  at  that  time.  Since  then, 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.          483 

it  has  been  found  in  a  number  of  different  places,  but 
as  yet  has  not  caused  sufficient  damage  to  attract  serious 
attention. 

On  the  leaves,  fruit  and  twigs  of  affected  trees  small 
brownish-black  spots  are  to  be  seen.  These  spots  are 
sometimes  separate  and  sometimes  confluent.  Where 
separate,  the  intervening  tissue  is  apparently  quite  nor- 
mal, but  where  confluent  to  any  considerable  extent,  a 
brownish  tinge  is  given  to  the  whole  leaf.  The  spots  are 
somewhat  elevated  and  are  occasionally  found  to  be 
cracked  or  fissured  at  the  apex.  Under  diseased  trees 
large  numbers  of  leaves  are  found,  showing  to  what  ex- 
tent the  disease  has  been  injurious.  The  disorder  causes 
damage  to  the  trees  by  defoliating  them,  rendering  the 
leaves  unable  to  carry  out  assimilative  processes  for  quite 
a  time  before  they  drop,  and  also  in  rendering  the  fruit 
unsightly,  because  of  the  irregular  dark-colored  areas 
which  cover  the  surface. 

Careful  microscopical  examination  has  been  made  of 
the  diseased  spots,  but  nothing  has  been  found  to  which 
the  trouble  might  be  attributed.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
it  may  be  caused  by  some  vegetable  organism,  but  thus 
far  nothing  has  been  found  to  establish  this  fact  beyond 
the  observation  that  the  disease  seems  to  spread  from 
tree  to  tree,  and  the  fact  that  it  yields  to  applications 
of  fungicides. 

Dr.  N.  A.  Cobb,  of  New  South  Wales,  called  atten- 
tion to  a  disease  of  citrus  fruit  to  which  he  applied  the 
same  name,  believing  them  to  be  identical.  McAlpine,* 
however,  after  carefully  comparing  Australian  and  Florida 
specimens  of  diseased  leaves,  says,  "For  the  present,  at 
any  rate,  the  two  diseases  cannot  be  considered  identical." 

*  Fungus  Diseases  of  Citrus  Fruits  in  Australia.     16.     N.,   1899. 


484 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Treatment.  Experiments  have  shown  that  this 
trouble  may  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture in  very  weak  solution,  one  to  twelve  and  one-half 
or  fifteen  used  as  a  preventive,  not  as  a  curative.  The 
dangerous  period  to  the  fruit  is  while  it  is  still  young. 
It  would  be  best  to  commence  spraying  during  the  dor- 
mant period,  before  the  trees  bloom,  and  spray  once  a 
month  until  the  fruit  is  well  formed,  that  is,  about  the 
month  of  July. 

Lichens.  These  plants 
are  found  growing  upon 
stones,  logs,  boards,  fences 
and  living  trees  through- 
out the  country.  In  color 
they  are  yellow,  green,  red- 
dish or  gray.  Their  forms 
are  many  and  varied; 
some  adhere  closely  to  the 
substances  on  which  they 
grow  (crustaceans)  ;  some 
are  branched  and  elevated 
(fruticose)  ;  while  others 
present  a  rough,  crumpled 
surface  ( foliaceous ) . 
From  the  botanist's  stand- 
point, lichens  are  among 
the  most  interesting  mem- 
bers of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom; they  consist  of  a 
fungus  and  an  alga  grow- 
ing together,  each  contrib- 
uting to  the  welfare  of  the  other  (symbiosis) .  The  fungus 
furnishes  water  containing  food  in  solution  and  shades 


Fig.  105.     Lichens  on  trunk  of  an 
orange   tree. 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES. 


485 


the  alga,  which,  in  return  for  these  good  offices,  supplies 
the  former  with  the  result  of  its  assimilative  processes. 

The  moist,  warm  climate  of  some  of  the  citrus  dis- 
tricts is  ideal  for  their  development.  In  many  orange 
groves  the  trunks  and  the  larger  branches  of  the  trees  are 
covered  with  lichens;  they  are  obnoxious  to  the  eye,  and 
to  a  certain  degree  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  tree. 
They  are  not  parasitic,  but  they  prevent  a  free  inter- 
change of  gases  through  the  bark,  thus  to  some  extent, 
producing  a  condition  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  tree; 
and  certain  it  is,  they  are  never  so  plentiful  on  healthy, 
vigorous  trees  as  upon  those  which  are  in  poor  condition. 
They  serve  also  as  a  harborage  for  insects  and  insect  eggs. 


Consequently,  it  is  very  desirable 
that  the  trunks  of  the  trees  should 
be  kept  free  from  lichens,  and,  for- 
tunately, this  is  easily  accomplished 
at  a  very  slight  cost.  One  treatment 
every  two  or  three  years  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  keep  the  trunks  in  a  clean, 
healthy  condition. 

Besides  those  found  on  the  trunk 
and  large  branches,  a  lichen,  Strig- 
ula  complanata  (Fee  and  Mont.) 
Nyl.,  is  frequently  met  with  on  the 
leaves  of  citrus  trees.  It  occurs  in 
the  form  of  small  ashy-gray  dots  and 
blotches  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaves,  Fig.  106.  Here  and  there  on 
these  blotches  may  be  seen  small, 
black  specks,  the  fruiting  bodies  of 
.  ice.  Lichen  (striguiatne  lichen.  This  species  injuriously 
affects  the  leaves  by  preventing  the 


486 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


access  of  light  and  upon  the  action  of  light,  the  assimila- 
tion of  food  depends. 

Treatment.  Spray  the 
leaves  with  formula  (1), 
and  either  apply  to  the 
trunks  as  a  spray  or  ap- 
ply with  a  stiff  brush  and 
scrub  them  clean.  Scrub  Fig- 107-  Tree  scraper. 

trunks  and  limbs  with  soap  suds.     A  tree  scraper  may 
frequently  be  used  to  advantage. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL     DISEASES. 

Die-Back.    This  disease  takes  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  young  twigs  and  branches  of  affected  trees  die 

back  to  a  distance  of 
from  two  to  eight 
inches,  or  even  more, 
from  their  tips.  Sub- 
sequently the  older  and 
larger  limbs  and 
branches  are  affected, 
unless  the  disease  is 
checked. 

No  citrus  trouble  is 
more  widely  distrib- 
uted throughout  Flor- 
ida than  die-back,  and 
it  occurs  in  California 
and  other  citrus  dis- 
tricts as  well.  No  lo- 
cality is  exempt  from 
it  and  no  variety  free 

Fig-.  108.     Oranfge_tree Rowing  effects     from  its  attack.      Trees, 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.          487 

young  and  old,  suffer  alike,  and  a  few  trees  have  been 
found  affected  which  were  still  standing  in  the  nursery 
rows.  Very  often,  little  notice  is  taken  of  it,  and  it  gradu- 
ally works  its  way,  nipping  off  the  new  growth,  and  the 
trees,  in  consequence,  make  very  little  progress.  Years  of 
work  and  much  capital  are  often  wasted  in  mistaken  efforts 
to  bring  a  grove  into  healthy  condition. 

The  disease  is  easily  recognized.  The  young  twigs 
die  back  several  inches.  Irregular,  reddish-brown  ele- 
vations, at  first  closed,  later  cracked  open  and  filled  with 
a  resinous  substance,  make  their  appearance  on  the  small 
branches  and  twigs.  These  vary  greatly  in  length,  height 
and  shape.  Often  elevated  pustules,  filled  with  a  gummy 
substance,  occur  on  the  young  growth.  These  seem,  in 
some  cases,  at  least,  to  develop  into  open  ruptures.  Ad- 
ventitious buds  are  frequently  produced,  and  those  which 
are  not  smothered  by  the  resinous  exudation  develop, 
thus  giving  rise  to  several  branches  from  a  single  node. 
Sometimes  the  only  noticeable  mark  of  the  disorder  on  a 
branch  is  the  presence  of  a  resinous  knot  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves,  where  the  buds  should  be.  Slightly  affected 
branches  have  often  a  dark,  greasy  appearance.  The 
small  growth  is  usually  twisted  and  bent.  On  the  fruit 
the  disease  is  manifested  by  the-presence  of  dark,  brown- 
ish blotches  and  by  cracking  or  splitting.  Many  fruits 
drop  off.  As  the  disease  advances  the  trees  try  in  vain  to 
throw  out  new  branches.  Symptoms  become  more  strongly 
marked,  the  tips  of  the  bare,  distorted  branches  protrude 
above  the  dark-green  foliage.  Gradually  the  larger 
branches  are  embraced,  water-sprouts  develop  only  to  be- 
come affected  and  die.  Eventually  the  tree  succumbs. 

Die-back  is  not  a  fungous  disease,  no  spores  nor  fun- 
gal threads  having  been  found  connected  with  it  as  causal 


488  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

agents.  It  appears  rather  to  be  a  disorder  brought  about 
by  a  variety  of  circumstances,  and  the  external  marks  of 
the  disease  are  to  be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  a  de- 
ranged condition  of  the  whole  tree.  In  certain  locali- 
ties it  seems  to  be  brought  about  by  the  presence  of  hard- 
pan  in  proximity  to  the  surface.  Again,  the  condition 
seems  to  be  due  to  a  wet,  poorly  aerated  soil.  But  perhaps 
the  most  prolific  source  of  the  trouble  is  the  use  of  ferti- 
lizers unsuitable  to  the  orange  tree.  Now,  whether  we 
should  make  a  distinction  in  die-back  as  induced  by  these 
several  causes,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  but  it  is  probable  that 
in  each  and  every  case,  the  same  causative  agent,  an  en- 
zyme, is  at  work. 

Many  instances  have  come  under  the  observation  of 
the  writer,  of  the  occurrence  of  the  disease  where  trees 
were  planted  in  ground  previously  used  in  growing  vege- 
tables, and  which  was  heavily  fertilized  with  blood  and 
bone  and  cotton-seed  meal.  Then,  too,  in  some  localities 
the  spaces  between  the  tree  rows  have  been  used  for  grow- 
ing vegetables,  the  same  fertilizers  applied  as  in  the  cases 
just  mentioned,  and  with  the  same  deplorable  effect  on  the 
orange  trees.  The  disease  has  been  observed  in  groves 
regularly  fertilized  with  rank  nitrogenous  fertilizers, 
and  trees  standing  near  and  receiving  nutriment  from 
stables,  closets  and  hencoops  are  generally  affected.  The 
general  conclusion  reached  by  all  observers  during  the 
past  fifteen  years  or  more  has  been  for  the  most  part  to 
the  effect  that  the  excessive  use  of  organic  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  will  cause  die-back,  and  the  matter  has  been 
pretty  thoroughly  discussed  in  the  horticultural  papers 
of  the  citrus  districts. 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.         439 

Treatment.  This  consists  for 
the  most  part  in  removing  con- 
ditions and  discontinuing  prac- 
tices which  induce  the  disease. 
Make  a  thorough  study  of  the 
soil  and  the  methods  of  fertiliz- 
ing. In  some  places,  with  trees 
growing  on  hard-pan,  the  follow- 
ing plan  was  adopted  and  they 
made  a  complete  recovery:  The 
trees  were  cut  back,  lifted  from 
the  ground,  the  hard-pan  re- 
moved, either  by  blasting  or  pick- 
ing it  out,  and  the  trees  re-set. 
The  remedy  for  trees  growing  in 
damp  ground  consists  in  paying 
proper  attention  to  drainage  and 
fertilizing.  Tile  or  box  drains 
should  be  put  in  to  remove  the 
water  and  allow  the  air  to  enter. 
Where  the  disease  has  been  brought  about  by  the  use  of 
fertilizers,  as  before  indicated,  discontinue  their  use,  dis- 
continue cultivation,  allow  the  natural  vegetation  to  spring 
up  and  apply  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  as  usual.  Con- 
tinue this  treatment  until  recovery  takes  place;  then  re- 
sume cultivation  and  fertilization,  using  nitrate  of  soda 
or  sulphate  of  ammonia  as  a  source  of  nitrogen. 

Solution  No.  (1)  has  in  many  cases  given  excellent 
results,  but  sometimes  no  results  have  been  obtained. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  injurious  effects  of  a  hard- 
pan  sub-soil  can  be  overcome  by  spraying.  But  in  other 
instances  it  may  prove  beneficial.  Because  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  a  fungicide  and  has  given  results  in  cases  of 


490  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

die-back,  some  have  argued  that  this  disease  is  due  to  a 
fungus.  This  is  not  the  case,  however,  and  the  beneficial 
results  must  be  attributed  to  the  chemo-toxic  effects  of 
the  solution  in  accelerating  the  assimilative  processes  in 
the  leaves  and  other  green  parts  of  the  trees. 

If  the  spraying  method  of  control  is  adopted,  three 
or  four  applications  should  be  given  at  intervals  of  about 
thirty  days.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  not  an  insecticide,  but  on  the  other  hand  its 
use  is  generally  followed  by  an  enormous  increase  in  the 
number  of  scale  insects.  Therefore,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  follow  the  applications  of  Bordeaux  up  with  a  good 
insecticide,  such  as  Good  Potash  Whale-oil  Soap,  No.  3, 
to  keep  the  scale  insects  in  check.  If  the  grower  is  unwill- 
ing to  do  this  then  spraying  must  be  left  alone  and  the  cul- 
tural treatment  adopted. 

Blight.  This  is  the  most  dreaded  of  all  citrus  diseases, 
because,  thus  far,  no  satisfactory  means  have  been  discov- 
ered of  preventing  or  combating  it.  The  history  of  the 
disease  is  not  definitely  known,  but  it  has  been  prevalent 
in  the  Florida  districts  for  a  number  of  years.  Many  of 
the  worst  affected  groves  have  disappeared,  but  the  dis- 
ease is  still  quite  prevalent. 

Blighted  trees  appear  as  though  suffering  from 
drought,  or  look  as  though  they  had  recently  been  trans- 
planted. The  leaves  wilt,  droop  and  finally  drop  off.  In 
some  cases  the  disease  works  very  rapidly,  in  others  its 
progress  is  decidedly  slow.  It  often  manifests  itself  on 
a  single  branch  and  from  that  gradually  spreads  over  the 
whole  tree.  Trees  affected  in  this  way  live  for  a  consid- 
erable length  of  time.  But  in  many  cases  it  soon  brings 
about  the  death  of  the  tree.  Shoots  spring  out  from  the 
trunk  and  crown  roots  of  the  tree.  These  also  succumb 


FUNGOUS  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DISEASES.          491 

eventually.  The  leaves  produced  on  these  shoots  are  usu- 
ally quite  yellow  between  the  veins  and  have  a  peculiar 
constricted  appearance. 

Thus  far,  the  cause  of  the  disease  remains  unknown. 
Trees  may  be  attacked  at  any  age,  whether  old  or  young, 
but  as  a  general  thing  it  appears  most  commonly  in  old 
bearing  trees.  Up  to  the  time  when  they  are  attacked  they 
generally  appear  to  be  quite  healthy.  No  external  agent 
has  been  found  connected  with  it.  It  appears  rather  to  be 
the  result  of  internal  derangement  of  the  functional  pro- 
cesses carried  on  within  the  tree.  It  may  be  that  it  is 
caused  by  an  enzyme,  a  poisonous  substance  present  in 
the  soil.  In  fact,  it  appears  at  the  present  time  that  this 
is  about  the  only  plausible  explanation  of  its  cause.  A 
number  of  other  plant  diseases,  such  as  peach-yellows 
and  rosette,  may  belong  to  this  same  class  of  diseases, 
though  in  none  of  these  cases  has  this  theory  been  act- 
ually proven. 

Color  is  given  to  this  theory  of  the  cause  of  the  blight 
of  citrus  trees  by  the  fact  that  it  is  usually  more  or  less 
localized  in  a  grove  and  there  may  be  a  number  of  sepa- 
rate centers  of  the  disease  in  a  single  grove.  The  peculiar 
nature  of  the  new  growth  and  the  frenched  appearance  of 
the  foliage  tend  to  strengthen  this  view. 

Treatment.  Pruning  does  not  stay  the  progress  of 
the  disease.  Diseased  branches  may  be  removed,  leaving 
only  the  healthy  ones  and  yet  the  disease  will  reappear. 
Observations  have  led  to  the  belief  that  it  is  contagious, 
at  least,  trees  adjoining  those  diseased  also  become  affected 
in  due  time.  In  the  premises  the  best  suggestion  that 
can  be  made  regarding  the  control  of  the  disease  is  to 
dig  out  and  burn  the  diseased  trees  as  fast  as  they  show 
symptoms  of  the  disease.  Dig  them  up  and  destroy  them 


492  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

root  and  branch.  It  is  probable  that  the  causative  agent 
moves  through  the  soil  in  the  ground  water.  This  may  ex- 
plain the  apparently  contagious  nature  of  the  disease. 
Nevertheless,  the  trees  should  be  destroyed  as  already  sug- 
gested as  the  decaying  roots  in  the  soil  may  tend  to  increase 
the  disease.  If  the  disease  is  ever  successfully  combated, 
it  will  probably  have  to  come  through  the  application  of 
some  chemical  substance  to  the  soil. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 
INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  TREES. 

The  insects  attacking  citrus  trees  may  be  conven- 
iently grouped  as  biting  and  sucking  insects.  The  first 
group,  including  the  grasshoppers,  orange-dog  and  a  few 
other  insects  of  less  importance,  injure  the  trees  by  eat- 
ing the  foliage  and  other  tender  parts.  The  sucking 
insects,  however,  obtain  their  food  from  the  trees  by 
sucking  the  juices  out  of  the  cells.  Many  of  them  also 
appear  to  inject  a  poisonous  substance  into  the  tissues 
which  assists  in  destroying  the  cells.  The  members  of 
this  second  group  are  far  more  numerous  than  those  of 
the  first;  in  fact,  the  most  dreaded  insect  enemies  of 
citrus  trees  are  found  here.  This  group  may  be  further 
divided  into  Scale  Insects  and  Insects  other  than  Scales, 
the  latter  embracing  the  white  fly  and  different  kinds  of 
mites.  The  scales  may  be  divided  into  armored  or  pro- 
tected scales  and  unarmored  or  unprotected  scales.  The 
armored  scales  have  a  protective  covering  and  are  unable 
to  move  about  after  having  once  settled  themselves  in 
a  certain  position.  The  unarmored  scales  have  no  hard 
covering  and  are  motile  during  the  greater  part  of  their 
existence,  moving  freely  while  young,  but  in  a  very  lim- 
ited way  when  matured.  If  we  present  a  graphic  out- 
line of  the  groups  of  the  more  important  citrus  insects 
as  described  in  this  chapter  we  have — 

I.  Biting  Insects. 

II.  Sucking  Insects. 

(1).  Scales,  (a)  Armored  Scales,  (b).  Un- 
armored Scales. 

(2).  Insects  other  than  Scales,  (c)  White  Fly. 
(d)  Citrus  Mites. 


494 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


Those  insects  which  feed  by  biting  off  and  chewing 
parts  of  the  plant  can  be  destroyed  by  putting  a  poison- 
ous substance  on  the  part  of  the  plant  attacked;  not 
so  with  those  which  obtain  their  nourishment  by  sucking 
the  juices  of  the  plant.  These  can  only  be  destroyed  by 
spraying  over  them  some  penetrating  or  sticky  substance, 
such  as  kerosene  emulsion,  whale-oil  soap  or  resin  wash, 
which  will  enter  their  bodies  through  the  walls  or  close 
out  the  air  from  them  by  plastering  them  under. 

Poisonous  gases,  liberated  under  tents  over  the  trees, 
suffocate  them,  and  fine  powders,  such  as  pyrethrum,  pre- 
vent their  breathing  by  stopping  up  their  spiracles. 

7.      BITING  INSECTS. 

Grasshoppers,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned 
Rhomalea  microptera  Serv., 
ScTiistocera  america- 
num  Send.,  and  Schistocera 
obscurum  Burm.  Fig.  110  fre- 
quently prove  trouble- 
some on  citrus  trees. 
They  feed  upon  the  tender 
leaves  and  growth,  thus  re- 
ducing the  foliage  area  of 
the  trees  and  lessening  their 
vigor.  They  most  frequent- 
ly attack  the  outer  rows  of 
trees  in  the  grove,  those  ad- 
joining grass  fields  or  pas- 
tures. When  they  become 
more  numerous  they  spread 

Fig.  110.   Grasshopper  feeding  on       through     the     STOV6     and     do 
orange  leaves.     (Schistocera  oft- 

Burm.)  considerable      damage.       If 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  495 

they  attack  first  the  young  fruit  and  bite  a  small  area 
of  the  rind,  this  area  enlarges  as  the  fruit  grows  and 
presents  a  rough,  scurfy  appearance.  Such  fruit  must  be 
classed  as  seconds  or  culls. 

Treatment.  In  the  Canadian  northwest,  the  Griddle 
mixture,  formula  (15),  has  given  excellent  satisfaction 
and  has  in  many  sections  supplanted  all  other  means 
of  fighting  these  pests.  It  should  be  scattered  well 
through  the  groves  and  the  insects  are  said  to  be  attracted 
to  this  bait  from  a  distance  of  forty  feet.  No  injury  to 
poultry  has  resulted  from  its  use. 

The  Orange-Dog.  (Papilio  Cresphontes  Cramer). 
Frequently  a  large,  disagreeable-looking  caterpillar,  2  1-2 
inches,  or  slightly  more,  in  length  may  be  observed  feed- 
ing upon  the  leaves  of  citrus  trees.  It  is  dark  brownish- 
black  in  color  and  marked  with  large  blotches  of  a  dirty 
white  color  on  the  posterior  end,  the  sixth  and  seventh 
segments  and  the  sides  of  the  head.  The  anterior  end  is 
much  enlarged  and  when  at  rest  the  mouth  parts  are 
drawn  in  under  it  as  shown  in  Plate  33.  When  irritated  or 
disturbed,  the  insect  protrudes  a  pair  of  golden-colored, 
horn-like  feelers  and  at  the  same  time  a  liquid  having  an 
exceedingly  disagreeable  and  repellant  odor  is  emitted. 

It  is  in  the  larval  stage  that  damage  is  done.  The 
appetite  of  the  caterpillar  is  enormous,  an  ordinary  sized 
orange  leaf  being  disposed  of  in  about  five  minutes.  After 
feeding  to  satisfaction,  the  caterpillar  retreats  to  a  shady 
place  and  rests  until  its  next  feeding  time.  A  great  deal 
of  damage  may  be  done  to  a  tree  in  a  very  short  time  and 
particularly  on  young  trees  the  effects  of  their  presence 
are  very  noticeable. 

When  full  grown,  the  larva  seeks  out  some  secluded 
spot  on  the  side  of  a  limb  or  leaves  the  tree  entirely, 


Plate  XXXIII. 


Orange  Dog — (Papilio  Cresphontes  Cramer.) 

A,  Larva,  two-thirds  natural  size. 

B,  Larva,   prepared   to  pupate;    two-thirds  nat.    size. 

C,  Pupa  case;    two-thirds  natural   size. 

D,  Butterfly;  one-third  natural  size. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CITRUS   GROVES.          497 

makes  its  way  to  an  adjacent  fence,  tree  or  log.  There  it 
enters  the  chrysalis  stage.  First  an  attachment  is  made 
by  means  of  a  matted  web  joining  the  posterior  end  to 
the  chosen  place.  Then  a  strand  of  silk  is  attached  to 
the  support,  passed  around  the  body,  and  with  head  up- 
wards and  the  body  inclining  outward  at  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees,  it  spends  its  period  of  pupation,  last- 
ing from  twelve  to  seventeen  days,  depending  somewhat 
upon  weather  conditions.  The  chrysalis  is  inconspicu- 
ous on  account  of  the  strong  similarity  in  color  between 
it  and  the  object  to  which  it  is  attached.  It  is  brown 
and  gray-spotted  and  has  a  number  of  projections  on  the 
anterior  end.  (Fig.  C,  Plate  33.) 

From  this  case,  emerges  a  gorgeous  black  and  yel- 
low butterfly  (Fig.  D),  about  six  inches  across  the  tips 
of  the  expanded  wings.  The  yellow  markings  form  two 
bands,  the  upper  one  crescent-shaped,  the  lower  almost 
semicircular.  On  the  projecting  tips  of  the  hinder  wings 
are  two  yellow,  oval  spots  surrounded  by  a  margin  of 
black  and  at  the  rear  inner  edges  of  the  same  pair  of 
wings,  are  two  brownish  or  reddish  spots  with  a  small 
crescent  of  blue  dots  above.  Each  female  is  capable  of 
depositing  from  four  to  five  hundred  eggs,  which  are  de- 
posited on  the  tender  shoots  and  there  are  usually  four 
broods  each  season. 

Treatment.  Hand-picking  of  eggs  and  caterpillars. 
Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  four  ounces  to  fifty  gallons  of 
water  may  be  sprayed  on  the  foliage  when  the  larvae  are 
present. 

Hubbard  recommends  shooting  the  butterflies. 

Besides  citrus  trees,  the  caterpillar  feeds  upon  Xan- 
thoxylum,  on  Ptelea  and  some  other  trees. 


498  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

II.      ARMORED     SCALES. 

The  Purple  Scale,  (Mytilaspis  oitricola  Packard). 
This  is  one  of  the  commonest  and  most  conspicuous  citrus 
scales  in  Florida.  The  insect  seems  to  be  widely  known 
wherever  the  orange  is  grown,  either  in  this  country  or 
abroad.  Hubbard  observed  in  1885  that  it  was  more 
abundant  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  portions 
of  the  orange  belt.  The  freezes  since  that  time  seem  to 
have  reversed  this  order  of  distribution. 

The  scale  of  this  species  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
genus.  The  scale  of  mature  females  sometimes  reaches 
a  length  of  0.12  of  an  inch  (3  mm.),  and  that  of  the 
male  0.05  of  an  inch  (1.4  mm.).  The  name,  "Oyster 
Shell  Bark-louse,"  has  been  applied  to  one  member  of 
the  genus,  Mytilaspis  pomorum,  a  common  apple  pest, 
because  the  general  outline  of  the  scale,  together  with 
its  ridgings  and  markings,  are  so  suggestive  of  an  oyster 
shell  in  miniature;  the  purple  scale,  Mytilaspis  citricola, 
and  in  lesser  degree,  the  long  scale,  Mytilaspis  gloverii, 
share  this  resemblance,  and  so  it  is  not  uncommon  to  hear 
the  term,  "Oyster  Shell  Bark-louse,"  applied  to  any  one 
of  them  by  the  general  public.  The  form  may  be  de- 
scribed as  broadly  trumpet-shaped,  increasing  in  width 
behind,  often  curved  like  an  oyster  shell,  but  rarely  or 
never  with  the  sides  parallel.  The  surface  is  glossy  and 
smooth  and  from  a  light  to  a  dark  red-brown  purple 
color.  The  male  scales,  being  less  than  half  the  length  of 
the  females,  of  a  more  linear  shape  and  straight  outline, 
may  suggest  some  other  species  of  insect  upon  superfi- 
cial examination,  but  its  identity  cannot  be  confused  with 
any  other  species  than  the  long  scale,  Mytilaspis  gloverii, 
the  female  of  which  is  twice  as  long  as  the  male  citricola. 
and  the  male  of  which  is  shorter  and  rather  more  slender. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GR017ES.  499 

both  absolutely  and  relatively.  The  characteristic  pur- 
ple color  with  the  male  gives  to  a  mass  of  scales  belongs 
to  no  other  species  of  Mytilaspis. 

The  eggs  are  pearly  white,  very  minute,  elongate- 
oval,  .  and  are  usually  laid  in  four  rows,  but  sometimes 
promiscuously.  Each  female  deposits  from  25  to  70  eggs. 

The  newly-hatched  larva  is  irregularly  oval  in  shape, 
0.12  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  transparent  white  color,  and 
with  fiery  red  eyes,  which  have  been  likened  to  grains 
of  cayenne  pepper.  This  young  insect  wanders  about 
a  very  short  time,  and  then  settles  upon  the  bark  or 
leaves;  when  upon  the  latter,  preferably  along  the  mid- 
rib, and  is  soon  covered  with  a  white  film  of  wax  threads, 
some  of  which  stand  out  from  the  rest,  and  if  not  car- 
ried away  by  the  wind,  they  accumulate  and  form  cottony 
tufts  or  tangles. 

The  shedding  of  the  larval  skin  or  first  moult  occurs 
about  three  weeks  after  hatching,  and  the  formation  of 
the  true  scale  is  begun.  A  second  moult  of  the  female 
occurs  three  or  four  weeks  later,  and  when  nine  or  ten 
weeks  old  egg-laying  begins,  the  eggs  being  deposited 
beneath,  the  scale,  from  beneath  which  the  young  begin 
to  issue  in  about  a  week  after  the  eggs  are  deposited, 
unless  retarded  by  cold  weather. 

The  male  goes  through  its  second  moult  and  changes 
into  a  pupa  several  days  earlier  than  the  female,  from 
which  it  emerges  as  a  winged  fly,  and  is  ready  for  mating 
at  the  time  the  females  are  passing  through  their  first 
moults. 

There  are  three  or  four  generations  per  year,  but  the 
separation  into  distinct  broods  is  often  more  or  less  con- 
fused, one  generation  overlapping  the  succeeding  one,  so 


500 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


that  all  stages  of  the  insect  may 
generally  be  found  at  almost  any 
season  of  the  year  upon  infested 
trees.  Generally  speaking,  the 
greatest  numbers  of  migrating 
young  may  be  found  in  one  of 
three  periods,  namely:  in  the 
spring,  usually  in  March  and  some 
times  extending  into  April;  in 
June  or  July;  and  in  September 
or  October.  During  mild  winters 
a  fourth  brood  commences  in  Jan- 
uary and  straggles  through  this 
and  the  following  month. 

The  recorded  food  plants  of  the 
insect  are  as  follows: 

Banksia     integrifolia,     Croton 
Eucalyptus,      Murraya      exotica. 

™^   and    Ptelea   trffoliata. 

Treatment:  Solutions  Nos.   (9). 
(8)  or  (7). 

(Mytilaspis  glover  ii  Packard). 
The  long  scale  is  of  a  more  linear  shape  than  the  purple 
scale,  with  which  it  is  so  often  associated.  The  outline 
of  the  body  is  not  so  often  curved  as  is  that  of  the  pur 
pie  scale. 

The  female  scale  is  brownish,  about  0.11  of  an  inch 
(3  mm.)  in  length,  and  less  than  one-  fourth  as  wide. 
When  crowded  the  scales  adjust  themselves  to  their  sur- 
roundings by  taking  all  sorts  of  shapes,  and  many  will 
be  dwarfed  and  malformed  almost  beyond  recognition. 
except  by  microscopic  examination.  The  young  insects 
themselves  are  of  a  translucent  waxy  white,  with  the 


Fig.  111.     Purple  scale 

dtricoia  Packard)  on 

orange. 


The    Long    Scale, 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS   TO   CITRUS   GROVES. 


501 


outer  edge   of  the   last  joint  yellowish.     As  they  grow 
older  they  incline  to  purple,  which  becomes  deeper  as  the 
insects  increase  in  age.     The  adult  female  is 
about  0.05  of  an  inch   (1.3  mm.)   in  length. 
The  sucking  proboscis  is  longer  tha,n  thebody. 


Fig.  112.     Long-  scale  (Mytilaxpis  qloverii  Packard)  on  orange  branch. 

The  scale  of  the  male  is  smaller  than  that  of  the 
female,  about  0.04  of  an  inch  (1  mm.)  in  length,  and 
usually  straight.  The  color  varies  from  shades  of  brown 
to  yellow  when  young,  becoming  darker  with  age,  and 
reaching  a  dark  brown  in  the  older  females.  Generally 
speaking,  densely  clustered  colonies,  including  both 
sexes,  have  a  reddish  hue.  The  male  insect  is  a  minute, 
two-winged  fly,  0.01  of  an  inch  in  length.  Its  body  is 
pale  pink  in  color,  and  about  one-fourth  as  wide  as  long. 
The  eggs  are  elongate-oval  in  shape,  passing  from  a  light 
to  a  purple  color  before  hatching. 

The  life  history  of  this  scale  is  so  nearly  parallel 
with  that  of  the  purple  scale  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter 
into  details.  It  has  practically  the  same  number  of 
broods,  which  occur  at  about  the  same  time  as  those 
of  the  other  species.  Sometimes  the  broods  of  the  one 
species  precede  or  follow  those  of  the  other  by  a  few 
days,  but  they  are  often  simultaneous.  The  times  of  ap- 


502 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


plying  remedies,  therefore,  can  be  stated  to  be  parallel 
with  those  chosen  for  the  purple  scale.  The  parasites 
of  the  two  species  are,  likewise,  the  same. 

Treatment:    The  same  as  for  the  purple  scale. 

Red  Scale  of  Florida.  (Aspidiotus  ficus  Ashmead). 
The  female  is  circular,  dark  reddish  brown  to  black  in 
color  and  two  mm.  in  diameter.  The  scale  of  the  male 
is  considerably  smaller,  being  about  one-fourth  the  size 
of  the  female  scales. 

duced  into 
ably  intro- 
Florida  from 
the  present 
Cuba,  but  at 
It  was  prob- 
This  spe- 
cies infests 
branches, 
leaves  and 
fruit  alike, 
time  it  is  not 
very  widely 
distrib  u  t  e  d 
and  does  not 

cause  nearly  so  much  damage  as  the  purple  and  long 
scales. 

Remedies:     (9),  (7)   or  (8). 

Red  Scale  of  California.  (Aspidiotus  aurantii  Mas- 
kell).  This  species  of  scale  insect  appears  to  have  at- 
tracted attention  within  the  confines  of  the  United  States 
only  in  California,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  worthy  of 


Fig.  113.     Florida  Red  Scale  (Aspidiotus  ficus 

Ashmead)   on  the  under  side  of  pomelo 

leaf.      About    natural    size. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  5Q3 

note  that  the  Eed  Scale  of  Florida  has  not  gained  a  foot- 
hold in  California. 

The  female  scales  of  Aspidiotus  aurantii  are  light 
grey  in  color,  but  the  brown  body  of  the  insect  showing 
through  it  gives  a  reddish  brown  cast.  The  male  scale 
is  one-fourth  as  large  as  that  of  the  female,  and  the  pos- 
terior end  is  a  projecting  flap. 

Like  its  close  relative,  the  Aspidiotus  ficus,  it  infests 
the  trunk,  branches,  leaves  and  fruit.  It  has  proved  to 
be  a  very  troublesome  pest  in  California  and  since  no 
predaceous  enemies  have  been  secured  to  control  it,  the 
grower  must  rely  upon  his  own  efforts. 

Remedies:  Fumigation,  spraying  with  formula  (7), 
(8  or  9). 

Chaff  Scale.  (Parlatoria  pergandii  Comstock).  The 
female  scale  of  this  species  is  1.4  to  1.6  mm.  long.  It 
is  thin,  light  straw  colored  and  more  or  less  circular  in 
outline.  The  body  of  the  insect  showing  through  the 
scale,  imparts  to  it  a  somewhat  greenish  cast.  Several 
faintly  marked  ridges,  radiating  from  the  point  of  origin 
of  the  scale  are  to  be  found.  The  male  scale  is  smaller 
than  the  female,  being  1  mm.  in  length.  It  is  thin,  white 
and  almost  oblong  in  outline,  the  sides  being  nearly 
parallel. 

This  scale  is  found  most  commonly  on  the  trunk  and 
larger  branches  of  citrus  trees,  spreading  to  the  fruit  and 
leaves  only  when  it  becomes  very  abundant.  Frequently 
its  presence  is  overlooked,  owing  to  its  resembling  the 
bark  in  color  and  the  trees  frequently  suffer  severely 
before  the  grower  finds  out  where  the  trouble  lies. 

Remedies:    Same  as  for  Purple  Scale. 

Remedies :    Same  as  for  Purple  Scale. 

The  Orange  Snow  Scale  or  Orange  Chionaspis, 
(Chionaspis  citri  Comstock).  The  female  scale 


504 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


is  flat  or  very  slightly  con- 
vex and  the  more  recently 
shed  skins  are  toward  the 
narrow  end.  The  male 
scales  are  smaller,  white 
and  marked  with  three  par- 
allel ridges.  When  clus- 
tered on  the  twigs  or  leaves 
of  the  citrus  plants,  the 
males  are  very  conspicuous 
(Fig.  114). 

This  scale  is  rarely 
found  in  Florida,  but  is 
abundant  in  Louisiana, 
Bermuda  and  Cuba. 

Remedies:  Same  as  for 
Purple  Scale,  formula  (9), 
(8)  or  (7). 

III.       UNARMORED    SCALES. 

The  Turtle-back  Scale  (Le- 
canium  hesperidum  Linn. ) 
The  Turtle-back  scale,  with 
others  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  belongs  to  a 
sub-family  of  naked  or 
waxy  scales,  known  as  Le- 
caninse;  and  are  not  covered 
with  a  true  scale.  The  genus  of  Lecaniums  is  unprotected 
by  any  covering,  except  their  skins,  which  becomes  tough- 
ened with  age  so  as  to  resemble  parchment. 

The  full  grown  insect  is  from  0.12  to  0.16  of  an  inch 
(3  to  4  mm.)  long,  broadly  oval,  more  or  less  swollen 
and  convex  upon  the  disk,  surrounded  by  a  thin,  flat 


Fig.  114.  The  orange  snow  scale  (CM- 
onaspis  citri  Comstock),  on  under 
side  of  orange  leaf. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  595 

margin,  which  is  notched  on  the  sides  and  behind;  this 
shape,  with  the  brownish  color,  gives  it  its  popular  name. 
The  legs  are  concealed  beneath  the  body. 

The  young  insect  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  always 
settles  upon  the  bark  and  leaves  of  tender  growth.  The 
adult  insects  appear  to  be  unable  to  pierce  the  bark  of 
the  trunk  or  older  branches,  always  being  found  upon 
wood  of  newest  growth. 

In  the  spring  and  early  summer,  when  new  growth 
is  forming,  the  increase  of  the  insect  is  most  rapid,  es- 
pecially during  the  month  of  June.  Later  in  the  season 
the  colonies  disappear,  only  a  few  gravid  females  re- 
maining to  restock  the  plants  at  the  next  favorable  op- 
portunity. The  young,  hatching  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
season,  often  starve,  because  they  are  unable  to  reach 
tender  twigs  upon  which  to  feed. 

Treatment.     Solutions  Nos.  (9),  (8),  (7)  or  (6). 

The  Black  Scale,  (Lecanium  olece  Bernard.)  This  scale 
is  nearly  black  in  color,  approaching  hemispherical  in  form, 
and  longer  than  broad.  Length  from  0.16  to  0.20  of  an  inch 
(4  to  5mm.),  height  about  0.12  of  an  inch  (3  mm.).  The 
middle  of  the  back  carries  an  elevated  keel,  which  is 
crossed  at  right  angles  by  two  elevated  ridges,  the  latter 
dividing  the  body  into  three  nearly  equal  parts.  The 
body  is  slightly  margined,  the  outer  part  of  the  disk 
being  marked  with  many  small  ridges,  which  extend  from 
the  margin  half  way  up  to  the  centre  of  the  back. 

The  eggs  are  long,  oval  in  shape,  about  .0012  of  an 
inch  in  length  and  of  a  yellowish  color. 

The  young  larvae  prefer  the  smaller  twigs  of  the 
plants  which  they  infest,  and  usually  settle  upon  the 
leaves.  The  development  of  the  species  is  slow,  so  there 
is  probably  not  more  than  one  brood  per  year.  It  lives 


506  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

upon  all  citrus  plants,  olive,  pear,  apricot,  plum,  pome- 
granate, apple,  eucalyptus,  rose,  cape  jessamine,  live  oak, 
holly,  oleander  and  some  other  plants. 

Treatment:    Solutions  Nos.  (9),  (7),  (6)  or  (8). 

The  Hemispherical  Scale,  (Lecanium  hemisphcericum 
.Targioni).  This  scale  is  of  a  more  rounded  form  than 
the  other  common  species  of  Lecanium,  approaching  the 
form  of  a  hemisphere;  about  0.14  of  an  inch  (3.5  mm) 


Fig.  115.     The  hemispherical  scale   (Lecanium  Jiemisphaericum  Targioni) 
on  an  orange  twig. 


in  length,  0.12  of  an  inch  (3  mm)  in  width,  0.08  of  an 
inch  (2  mm)  in  height.  The  color  varies  from  a  light, 
almost  reddish  brown,  when  young,  to  a  dark  brown, 
slightly  tinged  with  red  when  old.  The  insects  found 
upon  twigs  are  usually  more  elongate  than  those  found 
upon  leaves. 

The  egg  is  of  an  ellipsoidal  shape,  about  0.006  of 
an  inch  (0.15  mm)  in  length,  and  of  a  whitish  color,  in- 
clining to  yellow. 

It  feeds  upon  orange,  palms,  orchids,  Camellia  ja- 
ponica,  guavas,  chrysanthemums  and  quite  a  number  of 
other  plants. 

Treatment:     Solutions  Nos.  (9),  (8),  (7)  or  (6). 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  5Q7 

The  Wax  or  White  Scale,  (Oeroplastes  floridetisis 
Comstock).  This  beautiful  insect  is  0.08  to  0.12  of  an 
inch  (2  to  3  mm)  in  length,  of  an  oval  form,  convex 
above,  and  concave  beneath.  The  upper  surface  presents 
a  rounded  protuberance  in  the  centre,  around  which  are 
arranged  six  or  eight  smaller  prominences  or  lobes,  which 
are  separated  by  a  groove  from  the  central  projection. 
The  white  covering  consists  of  soft  wax,  quite  similar 
to  the  commercial  article.  The  color  in  clean  specimens 
inclines  to  a  beautiful,  flesh-tinted  white,  the  pinkish 
tinge  being  given  by  the  reflection  of  the  light  through 
the  wax  from  the  red  insect  beneath.  The  insect  itself 
bears  on  its  upper  surface  six  tubercles,  three  on  each 
side,  and  shows  a  short  anal  tube,  the  end  of  which  is 
seen  projecting  from  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  waxy 
covering  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  pit.  The  walls  of  the 
body  are  very  thin,  and  enclose  liquids  or  eggs  of  a  dark 
red  color.  The  egg  is  0.01  of  an  inch  (0.25  mm)  long, 
and  of  ellipsoidal  form. 

The  eggs,  71  or  100  in  number,  are  extruded  from  the 
body  and  hatched  beneath  the  waxy  scale.  The  young, 
escaping  from  beneath  the  scale,  attach  themselves  by 
their  beaks  to  the  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  chiefly  along 
the  midribs  and  veins.  As  they  approach  maturity  they 
go  to  the  bark  of  the  twigs  and  smaller  branches.  The 
exudations  of  wax  first  form  in  ridges,  the  marginal  ones 
uniting  around  the  central  one. 

About  a  dozen  or  fifteen  similar  tufts  of  wax  arise 
around  the  centre,  and  the  young  louse,  when  about  a 
week  old,  has  been  compared  to  an  oval  white  star  upon 
the  leaf.  At  this  stage  it  has  some  superficial  resem- 
blance to  some  of  the  stages  of  insects  belonging  in  the 


508  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

AleyrodidaB.  The  adult  insect  is  covered  with  six  large 
plates,  three  upon  each  side,  and  three  smaller  plates, 
located  one  at  each  end  and  one  in  the  centre.  The  wax 
finally  becomes  covered  with  dust  and  dirt,  giving  it 
an  appearance  quite  different  from  that  possessed  when 
its  development  was  just  completed. 

There  are  about  three  broods,  each  extending  over 
three  or  four  months.  The  first  brood  occurs  in  April 
and  May,  the  second  in  July  and  August,  and  the  third 
in  October  and  November.  This  insect  is  native  to  Flor- 
ida, and  is  very  commonly  found  upon  gallberry  in  great 
numbers.  It  also  occurs  upon  quince,  apple,  pear,  the 
citrus  fruits,  ferns,  figs,  myrtles,  guavas  and  a  number 
of  other  plants.  As  the  insects  become  aged  many  of 
them  fall  to  the  ground  and  perish,  being  unable  to  re- 
ascend  the  plants  from  which  they  fell.  The  insect  does 
not  often  become  numerous  upon  orchard  or  grove  trees, 
but  sometimes  gets  thick  enough  to  cause  some  alarm. 

Treatment.  It  is  not  often  that  the  wax  scales  re- 
quire particular  attention,  but  we  have  some  reports 
indicating  that  they  may  inflict  considerable  damage  dur- 
ing a  short  period.  If  fully  developed,  they  will  prob- 
ably lose  their  hold  and  fall  to  the  ground  in  a  short  time, 
so  are  not  worthy  of  much  attention  while  in  this  stage. 
When  the  growing  larvae  become  numerous  they  can  be 
checked  by  an  application  of  resin  wash,  kerosene  emul- 
sion or  whale-oil  soap  if  made  while  very  young. 

The  Barnacle  Scale,  (Ceroplastes  cirripediformis 
Comstock).  This  insect  agrees  with  the  preceding  spe- 
cies in  possessing  a  white,  waxy  covering,  but  is  differ- 
ently marked.  The  average  length  is  0.20  of  an  inch 
(5  mm);  width,  0.16  of  an  inch  (4  mm),  and  height. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  5Q9 

0.16  of  an  inch  (4  mm).  The  naked  insect  is  dark  red- 
dish brown  in  color,  of  sub-globular  shape,  and  with 
a  strong  spine-like  projection  at  the  posterior  end  of  the 
body.  The  general  white  color  is  often  mottled  with 
shades  of  grayish  or  light  brown,  the  boundary  lines 
of  the  plates  remaining  apparent,  even  at  an  advanced 
age.  The  back  is  covered  by  a  convex  dorsal  plate  which 
is  met  on  each  side  by  six  lateral  ones,  each  of  which  is 
marked  by  a  radiating  nucleus  in  the  centre.  The  pos- 
terior plate  is  larger  than  the  others,  possessing  two  nu- 
clei, thus  indicating  that  two  plates  are  joined  together. 
The  eggs  are  0.014  of  an  inch  (0.35  mm)  in  length,  and 
of  a  light  reddish  brown  color. 

The  newly  hatched  larvae  are  dark  brown  in  color, 
and  follow  pratctically  the  same  course  of  development 
as  Ceroplastes  floridensis. 

It  feeds  on  oranges,  quince,  Eupatorium  and  probably 
upon  a  number  of  the  same  food  plants  as  C.  floridensis, 
but  the  species  is  much  more  rare  than  the  white  scale. 

Treatment:     Same  as  for  the  preceding  species. 

The  Cottony  Cushion  Scale.  (Icerya  purchasi  Mas- 
keil).  Immediately  after  the  moult  by  which  the  female 
insect  passes  into  the  adult  stage  it  is  free. from  waxy 
excretion  and  presents  a  broadly  oval  form  with  two 
prominent  raised  surfaces  on  the  second  and  third  tho- 
racic segments.  Its  color  is  still  reddish  brown,  with 
several  dark  spots  along  the  front  sides,  and  along  the 
sides  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  while  the  anten- 
nre  and  legs  are  black.  Just  after  the  insect  in  any  stage 
has  withdrawn  from  its  old  shell  in  moulting,  the  legs 
are  perhaps  the  most  transparent  and  whitish  parts  of 
the  body;  but  they  begin  to  darken  in  about  a  half  hour 


510 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


and  within  two  hours  are  black  in  this  stage,  and  as 
dark  as  they  become  in  the  preceding  stages.  The  an- 
tennae are  eleven- jointed,  the  club  being  one  and  one- 
half  times  as  long  as  joint  number  ten.  The  whole  body 
is  furnished  with  tufts  of  short  black  hairs,  which  are 


Photo  by  H.  A.  Gossard. 

Fi.g-.  116.     Adult  females  of  the  Cottony  Cushion  Scale  (Icerya 
purchasi  Maskell)  on  myrtle  branch,  slightly  enlarged. 

gathered  into  a  parallel  row  around  the  edge  of  the  body. 
The  secretory  pores  are  very  numerous,  occurring  in  enor- 
mous numbers  beneath  the  sides  of  the  body  and  scat- 
tered more  sparsely  over  the  back.  The  inner  row  of 
tufts  on  the  back  is  broken  at  its  anal  point  by  a  depres- 
sion, in  which  is  situated  a  very  large  pore  from  which 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  511 

the  insect  occasionally  ejects  a  globule  of  semi-liquid 
honey-dew.  This  depression  is  surrounded  by  an  irregular 
ring  of  hairs  which  are  yellowish  in  color  instead  of  black. 
The  glassy  filaments  described  in  the  last  stage  are  now 
very  long  and  radiate  from  the  body  in  almost  every  di- 
rection. They  break  off  very  easily,  yet  they  often  reach 
a  length  double  that  of  the  insect  and  her  egg-sac  to- 
gether. 

Just  as  the  body  of  the  female  begins  to  swell  from 
the  eggs  forming  inside,  the  beginning  of  the  egg-sac  is 
made.  The  insect  lies  flat  on  the  bark.  The  edges  of 
the  body  turn  slightly  upward,  and  the  waxy  material 
of  which  the  sac  is  composed  begins  to  issue  from  number- 
less pores  on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  but  more  espec- 
ially along  the  sides  below.  As  the  secretion  advances 
the  body  is  raised,  the  head  end  still  being  attached,  until 
the  insect  is  apparently  standing  on  its  head,  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  the  surface  to  which  it  is  attached.  The 
egg-laying  commences  as  soon  as  the  thin  layer  of  secre- 
tion has  begun  on  the  inner  side  of  the  abdomen  and  it 
continues  during  the  formation  of  the  sac.  Around  the 
edge  of  the  abdomen  there  soon  appears  a  narrow  ring  of 
white  felt-like  wax,  which  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
flutings.  These  flutings  grow  in  length  and  a  mass  of 
eggs  and  wax  under  them  increases,  forcing  the  female 
upwards  until  the  sac  is  completed.  When  complete  it 
is  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  times  the  length  of  the 
female's  body.  It  is  of  a  snow-white  color.  The  outside 
is  covered  with  fifteen  of  these  longitudinal  ridgings  or 
flutings  of  about  equal  size,  except  that  the  middle  one 
is  smaller  than  the  others.  The  upper  part  of  the  sac 
is  firm  in  texture,  but  the  lower  is  looser  and  thinner 
and  from  the  inner  side  the  young  make  their  escape  after 


512  CITRU8  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

hatching.  The  size  of  the  sac  and  length  of  time  required 
for  its  growth  depend,  leaving  the  weather  and  the  health 
of  the  food  plant  out  of  consideration,  upon  the  number 
of  eggs  which  the  female  deposits.  The  excretion  of  the 
egg-sac  continues  as  long  as  oviposition  lasts. 

It  probably  requires  from  60  to  90  days  to  complete 
the  egg-sac  from  the  time  of  its  beginning.  The  length  of 
time  depends  largely  upon  the  health  of  the  tree  on  which 
the  insect  is  located  and  also  upon  the  number  of  insects 
infesting  it.  Development  is  much  more  rapid  upon  vig- 
orous than  upon  sickly  trees. 

The  adult  male  is  a  winged  insect  with  dark  red 
body,  grayish  wings,  and  of  very  slender,  fragile  struc- 
ture. The  antennae  are  dark  colored  and  have  two  whorls 
of  light  hairs  extending  from  each  joint  except  the  first. 
When  the  insect  is  at  rest  the  wings  lie  flat  upon  the 
back.  It  is  readily  found  in  situations  where  the  male 
larvae  have  pupated,  under  boards,  beneath  cracks  and 
in  the  general  litter  of  the  grove. 

Remedies.  It  was  against  the  cottony  cushion  scale 
that  fumigation  was  first  practiced.  But  neither  fumi- 
gation nor  spraying,  although  the  insect  was  held  in 
check  to  some  extent,  availed  much  against  its  inroads. 
The  entire  citrus  industry  of  California  was  threatened, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  Australian  lady-bug  was  intro- 
duced that  its  ravages  were  checked.  By  this  predaceous 
enemy,  Novius  cardinalis,  the  cottony  cushion  scale  was 
brought  under  absolute  control.  In  Florida  the  same 
method  of  control  was  likewise  entirely  successful. 
Hence,  when  the  cottony  cushion  scale  gains  a  foothold, 
its  enemy,  the  Australian  lady-bug,  should  be  introduced 
at  once.  While  waiting  temporarily  for  the  arrival  of  the 
lady-bugs,  resin  wash  or  kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES. 


513 


The  Mealy  Bug.  (Dactylopius  citri  Risso).  This 
insect,  with  other  closely  allied  species,  is  very  common  in 
Florida.  The  adult  female  is  from  about  0.14  to  0.16  of 
an  inch  (3.5  mm  to  4  mm)  in  length,  0.08  of  an  inch  in 
width,  and  very  flat.  The  color  is  dull  brownish  yellow, 

the  legs  and  antennae  agree- 
ing with  the  body  in  color. 
There  are  seventeen  ap- 
pendages on  each  side,  and 
most  parts  of  the  body  are 
more  or  less  powdered  with 
particles  lighter  than  the 
ground  color.  The  egg  is 
about  .01  of  an  inch  in 
length,  of  long  ellipsoidal 


Fig.  117.     Mealy  bug-  (Dactylopius  citri  Risso)  clustered 

at  base  of  young  lemon  fruit  above,  on  under  side 

of  pomelo  leaf  below.     About  natural  size. 

form,  and  light  yellow  color. 

The  eggs  are'  laid  in  a  large  cottony  mass  at  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  and  require  consid- 
erable time  to  hatch.  After  hatching,  the  larvae  exhibit 
a  marked  tendency  to  settle  along  the  midribs  and  veins 

18 


514  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  or  upon  the  younger 
twigs,  especially  in  the  forks.  Ants  are  very  industrious 
agents  in  scattering  them.  The  honey-dew  excreted  by 
the  mealy  bugs  forms  the  attraction  for  the  ants  which 
care  for  them  in  a  way  that  has  been  compared  to  the 
attention  man  gives  to  his  domestic  animals.  Free  use 
of  carbon  di-sulphide  or  scalding  water  in  the  nests  of 
the  ants  often  furnishes  the  best  means  of  controlling 
the  mealy  bug. 

It  feeds  upon  house  plants,  orange,  coffee,  tobacco, 
croton,  Ipomea,  Learii,  Habrothamnus,  Pa3onia,  Solanum 
jasmoides  and  probably  a  number  of  others. 

Treatment.  Use  a  powerful  force  pump  and  pene- 
trating insecticide,  such  as  kerosene  emulsion,  upon  ma- 
ture insects.  Thoroughness  and  frequency  of  application 
will  govern  the  degree  of  success  achieved  in  fighting 
this  insect.  Repeated  applications  of  potash  whale-oil 
soap,  one  pound  in  two  or  three  gallons  of  water,  made 
while  the  insects  are  young  will  give  most  successful  re- 
sults. Limbs  that  are  badly  infested  should  have  the 
insecticide  painted  upon  them  with  a  brush  or  they  may 
sometimes  be  pruned  out  altogether. 

IV.       SUCKING    INSECTS   OTHER   THAN    SCALES. 

The  White  Fly.  (Aleyrodes  citri  Riley  and  Howard). 
The  egg  is  very  minute,  about  1-125  of  an  inch  (0.2  mm) 
in  length,  being  attached  to  the  leaf  by  a  slender  stem 
or  footstalk;  about  four  times  as  long  as  thick,  widest 
just  beyond  the  middle  towards  the  free  end;  color  pale 
yellow,  when  first  laid  tinged  with  greenish,  becoming 
darker  as  the  embryo  develops  and  some  specimens  be- 
coming of  a  dark  steel  gray  or  blue.  Surface  smooth  and 
shiny,  often  with  clinging  particles  of  white  wax.  Red 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES. 


515 


eyes  of  embryo  conspicuous  through  the  shell  as  it  ap- 
proaches maturity. 

Egg-laying  begins  with 
in  eighteen  to  thirty  hours 
after  the  adults  issue 
when  the  weather  is  warm 
(sixty-five  to  seventy-five 
degrees),  but  with  damp, 
cool  weather  several  days 
may  elapse  before  they  are 
deposited.  Egg  deposition 
occurs  upon  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaves,  pre- 
ferably upon  new  ones 
especially  those  of  water 
sprouts,  but  old  leaves 
may  also  be  well  covered 
with  them ;  they  are  usual- 
ly scattered  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  leaf  without 
much  order  of  arrange- 
ment, but  sometimes  are 
laid  in  the  arc  of  a  circle. 
From  four  to  ten  eggs  may 
be  observed  in  such  an  arc 
and  are  so  placed  by  the 
female,  using  her  beak  as 
photo  b>j  Dorsey.  &  pivot  around  which  the 

,.F.^M18-p  white  }y  (Aieyrodes  body  is  swung  during  the 

citri  Riley  &  Howard).  Pupa  cases 

above,   mature  flies   in  the  middle  oviposition 

(slightly    enlarged),    mature    flies 

and  eggs  below  (much  enlarged).  By    mathematical     COm- 

putation  a  leaf  from  young  orange,  five  inches  long  and  two 
and  one-half  inches  wide  in  the  middle,  collected  at  Myers, 


516  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

June  22,  1901,  had  upon  it  upwards  of  20,000  eggs.  While 
so  many  eggs  upon  such  a  space  is  beyond  the  average,  it 
is  by  no  means  rare,  and  I  have  sometimes  seen  the  number 
exceeded. 

Hatching  occurs  in  from  three  to  twenty  days,  ac- 
cording to  the  weather. 

The  larva  passes  through  four  moults  before  reaching 
the  pupa  stage.  When  first  hatched  the  insect  is  about 
1-80  of  an  inch  in  length  (0.3mm),  of  a  pale  greenish  yel- 
low color,  with  two  darker  yellow  spots  on  the  back  of  the 
abdomen.  There  are  four  conspicuously  long  bristles  at 
the  posterior  part  of  the  body  and  six  long  ones  on  the 
anterior  end  with  minute  ones  along  the  sides,  each  aris- 
ing from  a  tubercle.  Antennae,  three  or  four  jointed. 
Four  eyes,  dark  reddish.  Legs  short,  six  in  number. 
Mouth  parts  consist  of  a  long  sucking  tube.  On  the 
dorsal  side  of  the  last  abdominal  segment  is  a  subovate, 
brown  colored  opening,  the  vasiform  orifice.  Appearance 
in  second  and  third  stage  not  markedly  different  from  the 
first,  except  in  size  and  minute  microscopical  characters. 
In  the  fourth  stage  the  length  has  increased  to  about  6-100 
of  an  inch  (1.5  mm),  the  width  to  4-100  of  an  inch  (1 
mm),  and  the  conspicuous  bristles  have  vanished;  a  pair 
of  persistent,  minute  bristles  is  found  on  the  anterior 
border,  one  on  each  side,  and  another  pair,  also  minute,  is 
disposed  one  on  each  side  of  the  anal  cleft.  The  insect  is 
very  flat  and  close  pressed  to  the  leaf ;  the  dorsum  or  back 
is  crossed  by  twelve  transverse  ridges,  indicating  the  seg- 
ments. Arising  from  the  prothoracic  region  on  each  side, 
extending  obliquely  outward  and  forward  to  the  margin  is 
a  distinct  ridge  or  fold,  the  breathing  fold.  The  outline  of 
the  developing  wings  of  the  embryo  can  be  distinctly  seen 
from  the  first. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  517 

The  young  larvae  are  motile  and  crawl  about  over  the 
leaves  and  twigs  for  several  hours  like  young  scales 
before  they  fasten  themselves  to  the  leaves.  The  larvae 
are  attached  to  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves  and  are  in- 
conspicuous, because  of  their  transparency  and  greenish 
tinge.  If  the  leaf  be  so  doubled  in  the  hand  that  air  is 
admitted  beneath  the  insect,  it  at  once  becomes  readily 
seen  and  is  translucent,  whitish  green,  spotted  with  orange. 

The  pupa,  to  an  ordinary  observer,  is  quite  similar 
to  the  fourth  larval  stage,  but  more  plump  and  of  thicker 
body;  broadly  oval.  Measurements  about  as  in  fourth 
.stage,  slightly  narrower.  A  broad,  deep  orange  or  coral- 
red  spot  on  the  back  near  the  anterior  end  of  abdomen; 
eyes  purplish;  vasiform  opening  and  ring  brown;  trans- 
verse ridges  on  abdomen  shorter  and  less  distinct  than 
in  last  larval  stage. 

The  adult  female  is  slightly  over  1-20  of  an  inch 
^1.4  mm)  in  length,  the  wing  expanse  being  about  twice 
the  length  of  the  body  (2.8  mm).  The  color  is  light 
orange,  with  the  rostrum,  or  beak,  tipped  with  black. 
The  wings  are  colorless  when  newly  hatched,  but  within 
two  or  three  hours  become  covered  with  a  fine  white  wax, 
hence,  the  name,  "mealy-wing,"  sometimes  given  to  the 
insect.  The  body  also  becomes  covered  with  more  or  less 
of  wax,  but  its  ground  color  is  not  wholly  obscured. 
The  tarsi  are  two-jointed.  The  eyes,  reddish-brown  in 
color,  are  each  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  curved  ridge 
projecting  from  the  cheek,  the  upper  divisions  being 
the  smaller.  The  ovipositor  is  short  and  retractile. 

The  male  resembles  the  female,  but  is  smaller,  with 
the  head  and  abdomen  having  heavier  tufts  of  adhering 
wax.  The  abdomen  is  more  slender  and  has  at  its  termi- 
nation a  pair  of  claspers  slightly  curved  upwards. 


518  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Remedies:  White  fly  is  difficult  to  control.  Little 
can  be  done  when  the  insects  are  flying  about,  and  all 
remedial  work  must  be  undertaken  during  the  larval  and 
pupal  stages.  During  these  stages  the  insects  are  at  rest 
on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves.  Fumigation  or  spraying 
at  this  time  is  effective.  The  best  time  for  fumigating  is 
from  the  middle  of  December  to  the  end  of  February. 
Spraying  may  be  done  during  the  same  period  or  in  the 
summer.  When  the  insects  are  pupating  use  solutions 
(6),  (8)  or  (9). 

Strong  effort  should  be  made  to  introduce  such  bene- 
ficial fungi  as  the  Eed  Aschersonia  and  the  Brown  fungus 
This  may  be  successfully  done  in  a  number  of  ways.  See 
page  550. 

The  complete  defoliation  or  destruction  of  all  infected 
trees  and  plants  during  the  periods  recommended  for  fumi- 
gating will  insure  the  destruction  of  the  insects.  Some- 
times this  is  feasible.  The  principal  host  plants  are  all 
species  of  citrus,  Chinaberry  tree,  Umbrella  China  tree, 
Cape  Jessamine  and  occasionally  cherry  laurel,  Magnolia 
fuscata,  and  Japan  honeysuckle. 

Orange  Rust  Mite  and  Lemon  Silver  Mite.  (Phy- 
toptus  oleivorus  Ashmead.)  This  mite  is  quite  minute, 
being  0.14  mm.  in  length.  In  outline  its  body  is  rather 
wedge-shaped,  widest  near  the  head  and  tapering  grad- 
ually to  the  posterior  end,  which  is  provided  with  a  pair 
of  appendages.  The  abdomen  is  divided  into  about  thirty 
segments.  The  legs  are  four  in  number,  placed  close 
together  on  the  anterior  portion. 

The  young  insects  are  bright  yellow  in  color,  becom- 
ing darker  as  they  grow  older.  The  eggs  are  yellow  in 
color,  spherical  and  transparent,  and  are  deposited  by  the 
adult  singly  or  in  clusters  on  the  leaves. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  519 

Rust  mites  occur  in  great  numbers  on  the  leaves  and 
fruit,  as  many  as  4,568  having  been  found  by  the  late 
H.  G.  Hubbard  on  a  square  inch  of  leaf  surface  in  winter. 
During  warm  weather,  when  not  too  dry,  these  insects 
multiply  rapidly. 

They  attack  both  the  leaves  and  the  fruit.  When  the 
leaves  are  attacked  they  lose  their  glossy  color  and  be- 
come covered  with  brownish  spots,  but  it  is  upon  the  fruit 
that  its  effects  are  most  noticeable.  The  mites  feed  upon 
the  essential  oil  of  the  rind  and  through  the  punctures 
which  they  make  the  air  comes  in  contact  with  the  oil, 
bringing  about  a  change  in  color.  On  the  lemon,  the  col- 
oration is  somewhat  silvery,  hence  the  name  applied  to 
the  insect  by  Mr.  Marlatt.  Fruit  when  attacked  does 
not  develop  normally,  but  remains  undersized.  The  in- 
sects prefer  and  seek  the  shade,  hence,  the  under  side  of 
the  fruit  not  exposed  to  the  sun  becomes  "rusty,"  while 
the  upper  portion  in  the  strong  light  is  not  affected. 

Because  of  its  attacks,  the  cost  of  handling  the  citrus 
crop  is  increased  materially,  as  two  classes  of  fruit  have 
to  be  made.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  russet  fruit  is  sweeter 
than  the  bright,  but  usually  brings  somewhat  less  money, 
the  markets  generally  preferring  a  smooth,  bright  fruit. 

Remedies.  Spray  with  formula  (11),  (12),  or 
(13)  or  dust  with  sulphur  and  lime  in  equal  parts  every 
two  weeks.  A  more  adhesive  solution,  formula  (13),  may 
be  used,  if  so  desired,  and  this  will  destroy  the  scales  as 
well.  If  this  solution  is  used,  the  intervals  of  applica- 
tion may  be  lengthened  out  to  about  a  month  with  fairly 
good  results. 

The  Six-Spotted  Mite.  (Tetranychus  sex-maculatus 
Eiley).  The  length  of  full  grown  specimens  is  0.3  mm, 
or  about  .012  of  an  inch.  This  is  slightly  smaller  than 


520  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

most  members  of  its  family.  It  is  of  oval  shape,  being 
widest  just  back  of  the  eyes.  General  color  pale  greenish 
yellow,  the  abdomen  in  mature  specimens  being  marked 
with  six  or  less  small  dusky  spots,  arranged  in  two  lat- 
eral rows  of  three  in  each  row  on  the  back.  Most  of  the 
younger  mites  are  without  these  spots  or  have  but  part 
of  them  present.  Some  of  the  mature  specimens  have 
fewer  than  six  spots  and  these  are  often  quite  indistinct. 
Eyes,  two  on  each  side,  the  anterior  one  of  each  pair  being 
blood-red,  and  the  pigment  so  disposed  as  to  give  the  ap- 
pearance of  two  red  eyes  on  each  side;  the  posterior  eyes 
are  colorous  and  transparent.  A  lateral  constriction  just 
back  of  the  eyes  divides  the  body  in  two  more  or  less 
distinct  regions.  The  terminal  joint  of  the  legs  is  long- 
est. The  thumb  of  the  palpus  is  quite  stout  and  bears 
on  its  tip  three  fingers,  of  which  the  middle  one  is  the 
largest.  The  young  mites  have  but  three  pairs  of  feet. 
The  eggs,  which  are  globular  in  shape  and  either  color- 
less or  of  a  pale  greenish  yellow,  are  losely  attached  to 
the  delicate  web  which  may  be  found  chiefly  along  the 
under  sides  of  the  leaves.  With  warm,  dry  weather  the 
life  cycle  from  egg  to  adult  is  not  more  than  ten  days. 

The  insects  are  carried  from  tree  to  tree  upon  the 
feathers  of  birds,  by  becoming  attached  to  the  feet  of 
lady  bugs,  upon  fallen  leaves  driven  before  the  wind,  etc. 
They  can  travel  upon  a  leaf  surface  about  two  inches 
in  one  minute  or  ten  feet  in  an  hour,  and  therefore  they 
quickly  spread  from  any  point  where  they  have  become 
newly  established. 

A  yellowing  of  the  leaves,  showing  as  streaks  and 
spots  along  the  midrib  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves 
and  as  blotches  of  yellowish  rusty  brown  on  the  lower 
sides,  indicates  the  insect's  presence.  The  excrements 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CITRUS  GROVES.  521 

show  as  minute  black  spots  and  the  cast  skins,  where  ag- 
gregated together,  constitute  whitish  silvery  patches. 
After  a  few  weeks  the  leaves  curl,  shrivel  and  fall,  more 
than  one-half  of  the  leaves  often  coming  down  and  from 
one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the  immature  fruit.  In  1899 
one  grove  located  in  Citra,  Fla.,  reported  a  crop  of  only 
about  ten  thousand  boxes  from  the  heaviest  bloom  the 
grove  had  ever  put  forth,  whereas  it  had  yielded  twenty- 
four  thousand  boxes  the  preceding  year,  the  whole  shrink- 
age of  product  being  attributed  to  the  six-spotted  mite. 

The  rainy  season  of  June  and  July  causes  the  mites 
to  practically  disappear  and  they  remain  in  such  small 
numbers  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year  that  they  are 
rarely  noticed  at  all.  Vigorous  trees,  especially  those 
grown  on  high  hammock  land  or  low,  moist  soil,  are  not 
apt  to  be  injured,  and  where  irrigation  or  artificial  wat- 
ering is  practiced  damage  is  slight.  Drenching  the  trees 
with  water  from  a  hose,  where  the  water  supply  is  abun- 
dant, as  in  the  case  of  irrigated  groves,  meets  every  de- 
mand. 

Treatment:     Formulas  (14),   (11),   (12)   or  (13). 

Purple  Mite  or  Red  Spider.  (Tetranychus  mytilas- 
pidis).  The  Red  Spider  appears  to  be  identical  with  the 
insect  known  throughout  Florida  as  the  Purple  Mite. 
This  insect  is  quite  small,  yet  distinctly  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  During  the  summer  months  they  frequently 
appear  in  large  numbers  and  cause  great  damage  by  caus- 
ing the  fruit  to  drop  and  injuring  the  leaves  so  that  they 
do  not  properly  perform  their  functions.  The  leaves 
become  spotted  and  lose  their  natural  glossy  green  color. 

The  females  are  considerably  larger  than  the  males. 
Both  are  covered  with  a  number  of  stiff  hairs,  which  act 
as  a  protection.  The  color  of  these  insects  is  somewhat 


522  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

purplish  or  reddish-purple  in  the  old  ones,  while  the 
younger  ones  are  lighter,  the  newly-hatched  ones  being  al- 
most colorless  or  straw-colored. 

The  eggs  are  bright  red  in  color  and  are  deposited 
mostly  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  in  proximity  to 
the  midrib.  They  are  attached  to  the  leaf  by  a  number 
of  silken  threads  attached  to  a  stalk  fastened  to  the  egg 
at  right  angles  on  the  upper  surface.  Eggs  hatch  rather 
irregularly,  but  generally  take  between  one  and  two 
weeks.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  out  of  the  shell,  they 
commence  to  such  the  juices  of  the  plant  and  continue 
feeding  throughout  their  whole  existence. 

Remedies.  The  insect  disappears  in  Florida  with  the 
coming  of  the  rainy  season,  but  much  damage  is  wrought 
in  all  citrus  districts  during  dry  weather.  Spray  with 
formulas  (14)  and  (11)  alternately  every  two  or  three 
weeks  until  damage  ceases. 


CHAPTER  XLII. 
FORMULAS  FOR  SPRAYING  MIXTURES. 

BORDEAUX    MIXTURE,   FORMULA    (1). 

For  Fungi. 

Copper  sulphate 6  pounds. 

Unslacked  lime 4  pounds. 

Water 50  gallons. 

Place  the  six  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  in  a  coarse 
sack  and  suspend  it  in  a  barrel  containing  twenty-five 
gallons  of  water.  Hang  it  from  a  stick  laid  across  the 
barrel,  so  that  it  is  just  covered  by  the  water.  In  this 
way,  the  copper  sulphate  will  dissolve  much  more  read- 
ily than  if  it  be  simply  thrown  into  the  barrel.  Slack  the 
lime  in  a  wooden  bucket  by  adding  water,  a  little  at  a 
time,  and  reduce  the  whole  to  a  thin  paste.  Then  place 
the  paste  in  a  second  barrel  in  twenty-five  gallons  of 
water.  Allow  sufficient  time  to  cool,  then  agitate  thor- 
oughly before  attempting  to  mix  the  two  solutions.  In 
pouring  the  copper  sulphate  and  lime  solutions  together 
into  the  barrel  of  the  spray  pump,  dip  out  a  bucketful 
from  each  and  pour  them  together  in  a  united  stream, 
at  the  same  time  thoroughly  agitating  the  mixture  in  the 
pump  barrel.  This  method  will  secure  a  mixture  of  the 
finest  quality. 

If  a  large  amount  of  spraying  is  to  be  done,  stock 
solutions  of  copper  sulphate  should  be  prepared.  In  a 
barrel  holding  fifty  gallons  of  water,  suspend  a  sack  con- 
taining 100  pounds  of  copper  sulphate.  After  the  sul- 


524  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

phate  has  dissolved,  fill  up  the  barrel  to  the  fifty  gallon 
mark.  When  thoroughly  stirred,  each  gallon  will  con- 
tain two  pounds  of  copper  sulphate. 

Carefully  slack  100  pounds  of  good,  fresh  lime,  place 
it  in  a  second  barrel  and  add  water  to  make  fifty  gal- 
lons. This  solution  will  contain  two  pounds  of  lime  to 
each  gallon,  when  thoroughly  agitated. 

In  making  up  the  spraying  mixture  from  these  stock 
solutions,  stir  well,  then  dip  out  three  gallons  of  the 
copper  sulphate  solution  and  dilute  to  twenty-five  gallons 
with  water  in  one  barrel  and  place  two  gallons  of  the 
lime  solution  in  a  second  barrel  and  dilute  to  twenty- 
five  gallons.  Then  pour  these  together  in  the  barrel  of 
the  spray  pump  as  already  directed. 

If  sufficient  lime  is  not  put  into  the  mixture,  there 
is  danger  of  injuring  the  foliage.  To  obviate  this,  the 
mixture  should  be  tested  before  using  and  if  deficient  in 
lime,  more  should  be  added.  One  of  three  tests  may  be 
used.  Dip  out  a  small  quantity  in  a  shallow  dish,  hold 
it  up  between  the  eye  and  the  light  and  blow  the  breath 
gently  into  it.  If  a  thin  pellicle  forms  on  the  surface, 
there  is  sufficient  lime  present,  but  if  this  pellicle  is  not 
seen,  lime  must  be  added  until  it  becomes  visible.  Second, 
dip  a  clean  steel  blade  into  the  solution  and  hold  it  there 
for  a  minute  or  more.  If  a 'thin  film  of  copper  forms  on 
the  blade,  more  lime  must  be  added.  Third,  prepare  a 
solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  potash  by  dissolving  an  ounce 
of  the  substance  in  four  or  five  ounces  of  water.  Dip  out 
a  portion  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  into  a  shallow,  white 
porcelain  dish  and  allow  a  drop  or  two  of  the  ferrocya- 
nide of  potash  solution  to  fall  into  it.  If  a  brownish  red 
coloration  is  noted,  lime  must  be  added  until  no  color 
is  seen. 


FORMULAS  FOR  SPRAYING  MIXTURES.  525 

Strain  all  solutions  into  the  spray  pump,  to  prevent 
clogging  and  use  only  wooden  vessels  in  preparing  the 
mixture. 

AMMONIACAL  SOLUTION  OF  COPPER  CARBONATE,  FORMULA   (2). 

For  Fungi. 

Copper  carbonate 5  ounces. 

Strong  ammonia  (26  per  cent.) 3  pints. 

Water 45-50  gallons. 

Reduce  the  copper  carbonate  to  a  thin  paste  with 
water;  about  a  pint  and  a  half  is  sufficient.  Then  very 
slowly  add  the  ammonia.  Then  add  forty-five  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water. 

If  so  desired,  the  stock  solution  of  copper  carbonate 
made  as  directed  above,  may  be  kept  in  a  tightly  corked 
glass  bottle  or  stone  jug  and  diluted  in  the  proportion 
given  in  the  formula  when  desired  for  use. 

LIME,    CRUDE   CARBOLIC   ACID   AND    SALT,    FORMULA    (3). 

For  Foot  Rot. 

Unslacked  lime 1  peck. 

Crude  carbolic  acid 4  ounces. 

Salt 3  pounds. 

Water 2  gallons. 

Slack  the  lime  in  two  gallons  of  water,  then  add  the 

crude  carbolic  acid  and  stir  in  the  salt.     If  too  thick, 
add  a  little  more  water. 

CRUDE    CARBOLIC    ACID    SOLUTION,    FORMULA     (4). 

For  Foot  Rot. 

Mix  together  crude  carbolic  acid  and  water  in  equal 
parts. 


526  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

SULPHUROUS  ACID  SOLUTION,  FORMULA    (5). 

For  Foot  Rot. 

Mix  together  sulphurous  acid  and  water  in  the  pro- 
portion of  three  of  the  former  to  seventeen  of  the  latter. 

RESIN   WASH,    FORMULA    (6). 

For  winter  use  against  White  Fly  and  Scale  Insects. 

Resin  30         pounds. 

Caustic  Soda  (98  per  cent.) 8        pounds. 

Fish   oil 41-2  pints. 

Water,  to  make .  . .  .' 100        gallons. 

Place  the  resin  (well  broken  up),  caustic  soda  and 
fish  oil  in  a  large  iron  kettle.  Pour  over  them  twenty 
gallons  of  water  and  cook  well  over  a  good  fire  for  not 
less  than  three  hours.  Then  add  hot  water,  a  little  at  a 
time,  and  stir  thoroughly  until  there  is  at  least  fifty  gal- 
lons of  the  hot  solution.  Place  this  in  a  spray  pump  and 
add  cold  water  to  make  up  100  gallons,  or  keep  the  mix- 
ture of  fifty  gallons  as  a  stock  solution  and  dilute  with 
an  equal  amount  of  water  a,s  desired  for  use.  Gold  water 
should  not  he  added  during  the  cooking  process,  hut  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  hot  water  should  ~be  provided  for 
that  purpose. 

RESIN  WASH,  FORMULA    (7). 

For  White  Fly  and  Scale  Insects  in  summer. 

Eesin 20  pounds. 

Caustic  Soda  (98  per  cent.) 5  pounds. 

Fish   oil 3  pints. 

Water,  to  make 150  gallons. 

Prepare  as  directed  for  formula  (6). 


FORMULAS  FOR  SPRAYING  MIXTURES.  527 

KEROSENE  EMULSION,  FORMULA    (8). 

For  Scale  Insects  and  White*  Fly. 

Kerosene   oil 2  gallons. 

Soft  whale  oil  soap .       1  quart. 

or  chipped  hard  soap 1-2  pound. 

Water  1  gallon. 

Dissolve  the  soap  by  boiling  in  the  gallon  of  water 
and  while  still  boiling  hot,  pour  out  into  another  vessel, 
removed  from  the  fire.  Then  add  the  kerosene  and  churn 
steadily  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  or  until  a  good, 
stable  emulsion  is  formed.  The  best  implement  for  do- 
ing the  necessary  churning  is  a  force  pump,  the  liquid 
being  pumped  back  into  itself  until  the  emulsion  is  formed. 
Make  good  the  amount  of  water  lost  in  boiling  by  adding 
sufficient  warm  water  to  bring  the  solution  up  to  4  1-4 
gallons. 

For  use  during  winter  months,  dilute  each  gallon  with 
ten  of  water,  and  for  use  in  summer  months,  dilute 
at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  of  the  mixture  to  fifteen  of 
water.  Never  use  kerosene  emulsion  on  trees  while  shedded. 

GOOD'S  CAUSTIC  POTASH  WHALE  OIL  SOAP, 
NO.   3,  FORMULA    (9). 

For  Scale  Insects. 

Soap 12  to  15  pounds. 

Water 50  gallons. 

This  soap  was  recommended  by  Prof.  H.  A.  Gossard 
in  Bulletin  No.  51,  Florida  Experiment  Station,  for  use 
against  citrus  scales  of  different  kinds.  It  is  now  com- 
monly used  throughout  Florida  and  has  given  good  satis- 
faction. 


528  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

KAHLE^S  DISTILLATE  SOLUTION,  FORMULA   (10). 

For  Scale  Insects. 

Untreated  Distillate,  28  degrees 5        gallons. 

Whale-oil  soap 11-2  pounds. 

Boiling  water 5         gallons. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water.  Place  the  distil- 
late in  the  barrel  of  the  spray  pump  and  pour  the  soapy 
water  in  on  top.  Pump  the  mixture  out  of  the  barrel 
and  back  into  it  until  a  uniform  creamy  substance  is 
secured.  Pumping  must  be  continued  until  a  complete 
emulsion  is  formed  and  all  oil  globules  have  disappeared 
from  its  surface.  This  makes  the  stock  solution. 


For  use  on  dormant  trees  dilute  one  gallon  of  stock 
with  from  twelve  to  fourteen  gallons  of  water.  On  grow- 
ing trees  it  may  be  used  somewhat  stronger — one  gallon 
of  stock  solution  to  about  eleven  of  water. 

SODA-SULPHUR  SOLUTION,,  FORMULA    (11). 

For  Red  Spider,  Six-Spotted  and  Rust  Mites. 

Sulphur    20  pounds. 

Caustic  soda  (98  per  cent.) 10  pounds. 

Water  20  gallons. 

To  make  the  stock  solution,  mix  the  sulphur  to  a 
medium  thick  paste  with  cold  water  in  a  barrel.  Then 
add  the  caustic  soda  so  that  it  may  boil  the  sulphur  after 
the  same  manner  as  lime  boils  when  slacking.  Have  at 
hand  twenty  gallons  of  water  and  as  the  boiling  process 
progresses,  add  it  to  prevent  burning. 


FORMULAS    FOR    SPRAYING   MIXTURES.  529 

For  use,  take  one-half  gallon  of  the  stock  solution 
and  dilute  with  forty  gallons  of  water,  being  careful  to 
strain  it  well. 

SODA-SULPHUR    SOLUTION,    FORMULA     (12). 

For  Purple  Mite,  Red  Spider  and  Rust  Mites. 

Sulphur 30  pounds. 

Caustic  soda  (98  per  cent.) 20  pounds. 

Water   3  gallons. 

To  make  the  stock  solution,  place  the  sulphur  in  a 
half-barrel  and  reduce  it  to  a  thick  paste  with  the  three 
gallons  of  water.  Then  add  the  caustic  soda  and  mix 
it  well  with  the  sulphur  paste.  As  the  mixture  becomes 
warm,  gradually  add  water  to  prevent  burning.  Stir 
thoroughly,  adding  water  until  twenty  gallons  of  solu- 
tion are  obtained.  Drain  off  into  a  keg  and  use  as 
desired. 

For  use,  take  one  or  two  quarts  of  this  stock  solution 
to  fifty  gallons  for  rust  mite  and  double  this  strength  for 
six-spotted  mite. 

SULPHUR-LIMB    SOLUTION,    FORMULA     (13). 

Sulphur    61-4  pounds. 

Lime   1        peck. 

Water   10        gallons. 

Place  the  three  substances  together  and  boil  for  thirty 
minutes.  Place  in  a  keg  and  use  as  a  stock  solution. 

For  use,  dilute  two  gallons  of  stock  solution  with 
forty-eight  gallons  of  water. 


530  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

POTASH,  WHALE  OIL  SOAP  AND   SODA-SULPHUR  SOLUTION, 
FORMULA    (14). 

For  Scale,  Mites  and  Red  Spider. 

Good's  Potash  Whale  Oil  Soap,  No.  3  12  to  15  pounds. 
Soda-Sulphur  Solution  (Formula  11)  1  to  2  quarts. 
Water 50  gallons. 

GRIDDLE   MIXTURE,  FORMULA    (15). 

For  Grasshoppers. 

Paris  Green 1  part. 

Salt 2  parts. 

Horse  manure  (by  measure) 40  parts. 

Water — sufficient  to  make  it  soft  without  being  sloppy. 
Scatter  through  the  grove. 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 
SPRAYING  AND  FUMIGATING. 

In  controlling  the  most  injurious  citrus  insects  by 
direct  means,  resort  must  be  made  either  to  fumigation  or 
spraying.  Under  certain  conditions  each  method  has  its 
advantages.  In  Florida  more  attention  has  been  given  to 
spraying  than  to  fumigating,  while  in  California  fumigat- 
ing has  received  more  attention  relatively. 

The  equipment  for  fumigating,  consisting  of  tents, 
wagons,  and  hoisting  apparatus  and  the  cost  of  operating 
is  much  more  expensive  than  the  equipment  for  spraying; 
for  this  reason  the  former  method  of  control  is  not  likely 
to  come  into  favor  with  owners  of  small  groves.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  fumigating  is  more  efficient 
against  most  insects,  as  one  fumigation  will  prove  as  satis- 
factory as  two  or  three  sprayings.  As  pointed  out  by 
Prof.  Gossard,  the  cost  of  one  fumigation  and  three  spray- 
ings is  about  equal  after  leaving  out  of  consideration  the 
cost  of  the  tents  and  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  apparatus. 
Wherever  the  expense  of  fumigating  seems  justifiable  it 
should  be  borne,  as  the  results  are  likely  to  prove  much 
more  satisfactory. 

The  choice  of  methods  must  in  some  degree  be  govern- 
ed by  the  shape  and  density  of  the  tops  of  the  trees  or  the 
shape  of  the  tree  tops  must  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
method  of  control.  It  is  impracticable  to  thoroughly 
spray  trees  with  dense,  thick  heads,  they  must  be  pruned 
out.  The  heads  of  the  trees  must  be  formed  like  a  hollow 
cone  with  a  leaf  zone  covering  the  framework  of  branches. 
Trees  with  low,  flat  heads  such  as  are  found  by  the  Ba- 


534  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

ronio  system  of  lemon  pruning,  are  well  adapted  to  spray- 
ing. All  dead  wood  must  be  pruned  from  the  interior  of 
the  tree  before  spraying  is  commenced. 

Trees  with  dense,  thick  heads,  as  already  noted,  are 
much  more  easily  fumigated  than  sprayed.  The  mass  of 
branches  prevents  the  spray  from  penetrating  thoroughly 
and  efficient  work  cannot  be  done  except  by  fumigating. 

SPRAYING. 

In  spraying  trees  for  scale  and  allied  insects,  it  will 
be  found  that,  to  secure  the  best  results,  the  work  must 
be  thoroughly  done.  A  liberal  application  should  be 
given.  Ten  to  fifteen  gallons  will  be  required  for  trees 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  while  those  from  twenty 
five  to  thirty-five  will  require  about  half  a  barrel. 

For  spraying  large  areas,  a  gasoline  or  steam  engine 
(see  Plate  34),  a  strong  pump  carrying  three  or  four  leads 
of  hose  and  a  tank  holding  about  three  hundred  gallons 
will  prove  most  satisfactory.  For  smaller  areas,  hand 
pumps  may  be  used  and  of  these  there  are  a  number  of 
good  ones  on  the  market.  The  Gould,  Deming,  Stahl. 
Friend  and  Field  pumps  may  be  mentioned  here  as  giving 
good  satisfaction. 

To  hold  most  insects  in  check,  two  or  three  winter 
sprayings  and  one  or  two  summer  sprayings  will  be 
necessary.  As  a  general  rule  the  armored  scales  must  be 
sprayed  during  the  immature  stages,  as  they  are  not  easily 
destroyed  when  their  hard  covering  is  fully  developed 
White-fly  must  be  attacked  during  the  larval  and  pupa 
stages,  while  the  mites  must  be  sprayed  whenever  active. 
Resin  wash  and  similar  mixtures  should  not  be  applied 
to  trees  when  the  fruit  is  only  partially  grown.  Serious 


SPRAYING  AND  FUMIGATING.  535 

loss  has  been  occasioned  in  some  instances  in  Florida  by 
spraying  in  May. 

It  may  be  stated  that  fumigation  is  not  effective 
against  the  purple  mite,  the  rust  mite  and  similar  insects. 
They  must  be  sprayed,  though  against  the  rust  mite  in 
Florida,  flowers  of  sulphur  applied  with  a  powder  gun  has 
proved  effective.  The  sulphur  must  be  applied  in  the 
morning  when  the  trees  are  damp  with  dew.  To  keep  the 
fruit  bright,  by  destroying  the  rust  mite,  sprays  must  be 
applied  once  about  every  three  weeks  during  the  summer 
and  fall  months. 

FUMIGATING. 

For  fumigating  citrus  trees  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  gen- 
erated by  treating  potassium  cyanide  with  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid  is  used.  The  gas  is  liberated  under  a  tent 
which  covers  the  tree. 

Many  different  kinds  of  tents  are  in  common  use. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  sheet  hoop  and  bell 
tents  (Plate  35).  The  style  of  tent  used  is  governed  in  a 
large  measure  by  the  size  of  the  trees,  but  the  sheet  tent 
is  probably  the  most  useful  of  all.  For  small  trees,  up  to 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  the  hoop  tent  is  very  serviceable. 

Tents  and  Treatment.  The  following  is  from  the  pen 
of  Prof.  C.  W.  Woodworth,  in  regard  to  the  materials  for 
making  tents  and  the  treatment  which  must  be  given  to 
render  them  gas-tight. 

"Common  duck  is  now  uniformly  employed  for  mak- 
ing the  tent,  most  of  them  being  made  of  the  8-ounce  can- 
vas, such  as  is  used  for  light  sails.  The  cloth  is  lapped  and 
double-sewed  in  the  same  manner  as  for  tents  or  sails. 
The  edge  is  usually  simply  hemmed,  but  some  bind  it  with 
rope.  Whenever  permanent  rings  for  handling  are  at- 


536  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

tached,  the  tent  is  reinforced,  but  this  is  a  matter  in  which 
there  is  much  diversity.  The  details  of  the  construction 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  size  and  kind  of  tent,  and 
will  be  referred  to  again,  below. 

After  the  tent  is  made,  it  is  treated  in  some  manner 
to  make  it  gas-tight,  so  as  to  confine  the  gas  better.  Three 
methods  are  used  for  this  purpose,  all  of  which  seem  to 
give  good  satisfaction. 

The  first  method  is  to  thoroughly  treat  the  tent  with 
boiled  linseed  oil.  It  is  applied  freely  with  a  brush,  and 
the  whole  cloth  becomes  saturated  with  it.  The  tent  must 
be  kept  spread  out  till  quite  dry,  for  the  oil  has  a  great 
tendency  to  heat  if  not  exposed  freely  to  the  air,  and  the 
cloth  chars  and  becomes  rotten.  If  properly  done,  the 
tent  remains  strong  and  tight,  and  is  not  too  stiff. 

The  second  method  consists  in  the  use  of  sizing  and 
paint.  The  sizing  is  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  the  oil, 
and  penetrates  the  fiber  of  the  cloth  in  the  same  way.  As 
soon  as  this  coat  is  dry  it  is  followed  by  another  of  rather 
thin  flexible  paint,  sometimes  on  both  sides;  the  result 
being  a  perfectly  tight  tent  with  a  very  smooth  surface 
and  fully  as  flexible  as  the  oiled  tent.  The  sizing  protects 
the  fiber  of  the  cloth,  so  there  is  no  danger  of  heating. 

The  third  method  is  the  saturation  of  the  cloth  by  a 
decoction  of  the  chopped-up  leaves  of  the  common  prickly- 
pear  cactus  (Opuntia  engelmani).  This  decoction  is  made 
by  filling  a  barrel  two-thirds  full  of  the  chopped  stems, 
adding  cold  water  till  the  barrel  is  nearly  full;  then  let- 
ting it  soak  tw^enty-four  hours,  when  it  is  drawn  off  and 
strained,  and  is  ready  for  use.  This  decoction  is  seldom 
used  by  itself,  but  other  substances  are  added  according 
to  the  whim  of  the  person  treating  the  tents.  Very  gener- 
ally a  pigment  like  yellow  ochre  or  Venetian  red,  is  added 


SPRAYING  AND  FUMIGATING.  537 

to  give  more  body  to  the  mixture ;  sometimes  glue  is  added 
also.  There  is  some  tendency  in  tents  treated  with  the 
cactus  decoction,  to  become  moldy  when  not  in  use,  to  pre- 
vent which  some  prepare  a  tannin  solution  to  add  to  the 
mixture.  The  decoction  may  be  applied  to  the  tents  with 
a  brush,  but  a,  better  way  is  to  soak  them  during  the  night 
in  a  trough  containing  the  mixture.  In  the  morning  they 
can  be  raised  by  means  of  ropes  and  pulleys  and  allowed 
to  drain  for  some  time  and  then  spread  out  to  dry.  Tents 
treated  with  this  mixture  are  scarcely  at  all  stiffened  and 
seem  to  be  satisfactorily  tight." 

In  treating  cloth  so  as  to  render  it  gas-tight,  Prof. 
H.  A.  Gossard  used  and  recommends  the  following: 

"Five  pounds  white  lead,  fifteen  pounds  of  laundry 
soap,  chipped,  ten  pounds  of  lampblack,  two  gallons  of 
boiled  linseed  oil,  six  gallons  of  water.  Heat  to  boiling 
two  vessels  of  water,  having  three  gallons  in  each.  In  one 
dissolve  the  soap  and  keep  the  other  hot.  Thoroughly  pul- 
verize the  lampblack  by  stirring  and  mixing  well  with  one- 
half  gallon  of  vinegar.  Now  add  the  lampblack  to  the 
linseed  oil,  stir,  and  pour  into  the  soap  solution.  Add 
the  white  lead,  mix  the  whole  thoroughly,  using  all  the 
water,  and  apply  to  cloth  with  brush,  keeping  the  paint 
hot  enough  to  just  show  steaming  while  being  used.  If 
the  first  coating  is  not  sufficient,  reverse  the  tent  and  give 
an  application  to  the  opposite  side." 

The  manipulation  of  tents  is  a  matter  requiring  con- 
siderable skill,  and  as  a  rule  it  is  best  to  secure  skilled 
labor  in  first  undertaking  the  work.  Excellent  directions 
are  given  by  Prof.  Woodworth  in  Bulletin  122,  California 
Experiment  Station.  The  following  on  the  form  and 
handling  of  sheet  tents  is  taken  from  that  publication: 


538  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

" Sheet  tents  are  made  either  in  a  regular  or  in  an 
oval  hexagon,  and  perfectly  flat.  A  pair  of  rings  is  often 
attached  on  each  side,  near  what  is  intended  as  the  front 
edge;  it  is  convenient  to  attach  these  rings  by  iron  links, 
so  that  they  can  be  rattled  and  found  in  the  dark  by  shak- 
ing the  tent. 

The  movement  of  the  tent  is  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  two  poles.  These  are  usually  simple  poles  with  a  small 
rod  projecting  from  the  upper  end,  over  which  the  ring 
of  the  tent  is  slipped,  a  rope  is  also  fastened  at  the  upper 
end.  The  length  of  the  pole  is  slightly  greater  than  the 
height  of  the  trees  it  is  desired  to  cover.  Sometimes  the 
pole  has  the  same  shape  as  the  lifter  used  for  the  box 
tents,  but  the  pulleys  and  guy-ropes  are  not  needed,  ex- 
cept for  the  largest  trees. 

*********  The  men  approach  the  tent  to  be 
moved,  poles  in  hand,  and  finding  the  rings  insert  the  small 
rods  at  the  end  of  the  poles  and  take  a  hitch  with  the  rope 
over  the  ring  to  prevent  the  latter  from  slipping  off.  They 
then  proceed  to  the  other  end  of  their  poles,  which  they 
have  placed  even  with  the  trunk  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
tree  to  which  the  tent  is  to  go.  While  taking  this  station 
they  have  not  let  go  of  the  rope,  but  have  held  it  tight 
enough  not  to  loosen  the  tent  ring.  The  next  step  in  the 
process  is  to  place  one  foot  on  the  end  of  the  pole,  to  pre- 
vent it  from  slipping,  and  to  pull  on  the  rope.  This  will 
lift  up  the  edge  of  the  tent  ******  As 
the  men  continue  to  pull  on  the  rope  the  end  attached  to 
the  tent  moves  through  the  arc  indicated  by  the  line  of 
arrows.  As  soon  as  the  pole  becomes  nearly  enough  up- 
right, as  not  to  slip  when  the  foot  is  removed  from  the  end 
the  man  backs  off,  away  from  the  tree,  and  thus  gets  a 
more  direct  pull  on  the  tent  which  by  this  time  has  begun 


SPRAYING  AND  FUMIGATING.  539 

to  require  some  considerable  effort.  This  becomes  neces- 
sary also  in  order  that  the  pull  from  each  side  may 
stretch  out  the  front  edge  of  the  tent  so  that  it  may  clear 
the  top  of  the  tree. 

The  tent  is  now  spread  out  over  two  trees  and  reaches 
the  ground  on  either  side.  As  the  men  at  the  ropes  contin- 
ue to  back  away  the  tent  is  slipped  from  one  tree  to  the 
next  and  the  poles  fall  to  the  ground.  In  this  last  stage  in 
the  process  care  must  be  taken  that  both  poles  reach  the 
ground  at  about  the  same  time.  If  this  is  not  done  the 
tent  will  shift  to  the  side  of  the  pole  which  first  reaches 
the  ground,  and  if  that  side  is  pulled  very  much  too  fast 
the  tent  may  not  reach  the  ground  on  the  opposite  side, 
and  sheet  tents  are  rather  harder  to  adjust  than  other 
kinds.  This  same  difficulty,  in  regard  to  the  front  and 
back  ends  of  the  tent,  often  occurs  when  using  a  tent 
barely  large  enough  for  the  tree.  If  the  tent  is  pulled  too 
slowly  the  poles  will  slip  when  the  tent  is  not  quite  over, 
and  the  front  will  not  reach  the  ground ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  if  it  is  pulled  too  rapidly,  the  tent  will  go  too  far, 
and  the  back  end  be  free  from  the  ground.  The  oval  tent 
was  made  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  for  with  it  care  only 
need  be  taken  to  slide  the  tent  far  enough. 

When  using  a  large  tent  for  a  very  small  tree  the  tent 
is  pulled  up  so  as  to  have  sufficient  slack  canvas  to  go  over 
the  tree,  and  this  is  pulled  over  by  hand.  When  being 
removed,  the  cloth  is  pulled  back  in  the  same  manner  as 
it  was  put  on  and  dragged  along  the  ground  to  the  next 
tree. 

In  the  case  of  very  large  trees,  which  require  the  lifter 
style  of  pole,  the  process  is  as  follows :  The  poles  are  set 
up  and  the  guy-ropes  attached  as  described  for  the  box 
tent,  only  that  two  poles  are  used.  The  other  ropes  are 


540  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

now  attached  to  the  tent  at  the  near  edge  and  the  latter 
pulled  to  the  top  of  the  pole.  The  rope  is  then  made  fast, 
the  guy-ropes  pulled,  and  the  tent  slid  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  with  smaller  tents.  Sometimes  the  pole  is  not  set 
at  such  an  angle  but  nearer  the  tent,  when  it  will  be  neces- 
sary, after  sliding  the  tent  part  of  the  way,  to  again  tie 
the  guy-rope  and  lift  the  bottom  of  the  pole  over;  it  will 
then  be  opposite  the  trunk,  and  the  tent  will  be  lifted 
high  enough  when  it  is  given  the  final  shift. 

When  there  is  fear  of  breaking  the  branches  in  re- 
moving a  tent,  the  practice  is  to  "skin  it  off,"  using  a  pole 
of  the  lifter  pattern,  and  carry  the  rope  around  to  the  far 
side  and  attach  it  to  the  edge  of  the  tent  there.  The  tent 
by  this  method  slides  over  itself  and  saves  the  tree  to  that 
extent ;  it  is  pulled  over  on  to  the  next  tree  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding methods.  Since  much  of  the  tent  by  this  method 
falls  to  the  ground,  it  is  harder  on  the  tree  while  it  is  being 
tented.  By  this  process  the  tent  is  reversed  each  time  it  is 
changed." 

Chemicals  and  Amounts.  Only  chemicals  of  high 
quality  should  be  used,  and  to  this  matter  particular  at- 
tention must  be  given.  There  is  much  variation  in  dosage 
as  given  by  different  fumigators.  In  part,  this  may  be 
due  to  climatic  and  other  conditions,  but  the  wide  differ- 
ence may  be  attributed,  in  a  large  measure,  to  a  lack 
of  thorough  investigation  of  the  subject.  Potassium  cya- 
nide, sulphuric  acid  and  water  in  the  proportion  of  2 
to  3  to  6  will  give  excellent  results. 

Most  of  the  fumigation  of  citrus  trees  has  been  for 
scale  insects.  Sufficient  work  on  white  fly  has  been  done 
to  justify  the  conclusion  that  it  requires  the  same  dosage 
as  for  scales. 


SPRAYING  AND  FUMIGATING. 


541 


One  of  the  most  accurate  fumigation  tables  is  given 
by  Mr.  W.  J.  Allen,  of  New  South  Wales.  The  following 
table  has  been  selected  from  this : 


DIAMETER  OF 
TREE 

HEIGHT  OF  TREE 

CYANIDE  C.  P. 

(98  per  cent) 

SULPHURIC 
ACID 

(66  per  cent.) 

WATER 

Feet 

Feet 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Ounces 

4 

4 

£ 

% 

IX 

5 

5 

% 

% 

i# 

6 

8 

i 

1 

2^ 

9 

8 

2*/s 

2% 

6 

10 

12 

4 

4 

12 

12 

15 

7X 

7X 

21 

14 

16 

10^ 

10# 

30 

15 

20 

15 

15 

45 

17 

22                       21X                 21# 

63 

18 

24 

26                    26                   78 

20 

24 

32                    32                   96 

23 

23 

41 

41 

123 

23 

26 

46 

46 

148 

After  the  tent  is  in  place  over  the  tree,  a  few  shovel- 
fuls of  earth  should  be  thrown  on  the  lower  rim  of  the  tent, 
resting  on  the  ground  to  make  it  completely  gas-tight. 

The  tent  is  then  ready  for  charging.  The  best  gener- 
ator is  an  earthenware  vessel.  This  is  placed  outside,  close 
to  the  tent.  The  requisite  amount  of  water  is  placed  in  the 
vessel  and  the  acid  is  added.  Into  this  the  cyanide  of 
potassium,  previously  weighed  out  in  a  small  sack,  is 
dropped.  The  generator  is  then  held  at  arms-length  and 
placed  beneath  the  tent,  which  is  then  snugly  closed  and 
left  for  40  or  45  minutes.  Both  the  cyanide  of  potassium 
and  the  gas  are  extremely  poisonous  and  must  be  handled 
with  great  care. 

Usually  the  fumigation  is  done  at  night.  If  carried 
on  during  the  day  the  tent  should  be  painted  black. 

The  most  complete  work  on  the  subject  of  fumigation 
is  one  entitled  Fumigation  Methods,  by  Prof.  W.  G.  John- 
son. 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 
FUNGOUS  AND  INSECT  FRIENDS. 

Fortunately,  all  fungi  and  insects  are  not  enemies. 
While  many  of  them  are  arrayed  against  the  grower,  and, 
at  times,  interfere  seriously  with  the  cultivation  of  his 
fruit  trees  and  other  plants,  on  the  other  hand  a  consider- 
able number,  a  by-no-means-insignificant  force,  wage  war 
against  the  insects  which  destroy  his  crops.  The  two  forces, 
one  working  in  harmony  with  the  cultivator,  the  other 
against  him,  frequently  balance  each  other,  and  the  injury 
to  the  trees  and  fruit  is  slight ;  sometimes  his  friends  over- 
come the  injurious  insects  and  so  greatly  reduce  their 
numbers  that  the  crop  matures  without  injury;  at  other 
times  his  enemies,  under  favorable  conditions,  increase 
more  rapidly  than  his  friends  and  when  such  is  the  case 
the  fruit  crop  suffers  severely  unless  the  grower  himself 
intervenes. 

Where  fungi  and  insects  can  be  relied  upon  to  hold 
the  enemies  of  citrus  trees  in  check,  the  grower  possesses 
a  very  considerable  advantage  over  the  cultivator  who  is 
not  so  fortunately  situated.  The  latter  must  resort  to 
spraying  or  fumigating  to  protect  his  fruit  and  trees  from 
injury,  and  the  added  expense  is  quite  an  item.  If  fun- 
gous and  insect  friends  can  be  relied  upon  to  do  their  part 
and  do  it  efficiently,  the  control  of  insect  enemies  should 
be  left  to  them.  Many  growers  have  been  able  to  do  this, 
others  have  not.  As  a  result  the  growers  of  citrus  fruits 
have  separated  along  these  lines  and  we  now  have  advo- 
cates of  spraying,  advocates  of  non-spraying  and  those 


544  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

who  mix  the  two  practices.  The  last-mentioned  class  get 
all  the  bad  effects  of  the  other  two  practices  and  none  of 
the  good.  They  do  enough  spraying  to  destroy  or  drive 
away  their  friends,  too  little  to  destroy  their  foes,  and 
consequently  they  leave  themselves  to  the  tender  mercies 
of  the  latter.  It  should  be  distinctly  understood  that  there 
is  no  intermediate  ground.  The  citrus-fruit  grower  must 
either  spray  and  do  it  thoroughly  and  systematically,  just 
as  he  would  cultivate,  fertilize  or  irrigate,  or  if  he  decides 
to  depend  upon  certain  fungi  and  insects  to  control  the 
insect  foes  which  attack  his  trees  and  fruit,  he  must  leave 
the  field  entirely  to  them  and  do  everything  in  his  power 
to  foster  and  assist  them.  There  must  be  no  mixing  of 
practices. 

Which  plan  is  the  best  to  adopt  no  one  but  the 
grower  can  determine,  and  then  only  after  having  obtained 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  his  own  conditions. 

To  successfully  control  insects,  by  natural  agents,  cer- 
tain conditions  are  necessary.  The  insects  to  be  controll- 
ed, must  be  gregarious  and  sufficiently  numerous  in  the 
beginning  at  least,  to  enable  the  controlling  agent  to  be- 
come thoroughly  established.  Thereafter  the  host  insect 
must  always  remain  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  suffi- 
cient food  for  the  existence  of  the  friendly  insect  or  fun- 
gus as  the  case  may  be.  Lacking  this,  the  grower  must 
see  to  it  that  a,  sufficient  number  of  the  injurious  insects 
are  kept  to  insure  the  perpetuation  and  multiplication,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  of  their  fungous  and  insect  enemies. 
In  short  the  latter  must  be  bred  and  kept  for  use  in  case 
of  outbreaks.  Then  when  injurious  insects  are  present 
in  alarming  numbers  in  a  section,  the  controlling  agents, 
fungous  or  insect,  may  be  introduced  and  established. 


FUNGOUS  AND  INSECT  FRIENDS.  545 

Fungous  Friends.  Fungi  can  be  successfully  used, 
to  check  the  ravages  of  insects,  only  in  those  regions  hav- 
ing a  moist  climate  and  a  season  sufficiently  long  to  per- 
mit of  their  development.  In  Florida,  Louisiana  and  the 
Islands,  fungi  may  be  depended  upon,  to  a  certain  extent 
and  in  many  cases  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  to  control 
injurious  insects,  but  they  would  fail  utterly  in  the  arid 
or  semi-arid  climate  of  Arizona  and  Southern  California. 
These  regions  must  depend  upon  predaceous_and_j)arasitic 
insects  as  controlling  agents.  Whether  these  same  agents 
can  be  as  successfully  used  in  the  more  humid  regions 
has  not  been  entirely  proven,  though  in  one  instance  at 
least  they  have.  In  some  cases  a  combination  of  fungous 
and  insect  control  has  been  satisfactorily  established. 

In  Florida  the  control  of  the  more  injurious  citrus 
insects,  the  scales  and  their  relatives,  by  means  of  their 
fungous  enemies  has  received  more  attention  than  in  any 
other  portion  of  the  world.  None  of  these  fungi,  so  far  as 
known,  are  introduced  species,  though  some  of  them  may 
be. 

The  principal  fungous  enemies  of  citrus  insects  in 
Florida  are  the  Red  Fungus,  Bphwrostible  coccopfaila 
Tul.,  well  known  through  the  work  of  Prof.  P.  H.  Rolfs, 
as  an  enemy  of  the  San- Jose  Scale  (on  peaches),  the  Gray 
Fungus,  Ophionectria  coccicola  E.  and  E.,  and  the  Black 
Fungus,  probably  belonging  to  the  Pyrenomycetes. 

Preying  on  the  White  Fly,  Aleyrodes  citri,  are  two 
fungi,  first  brought  prominently  to  notice  by  Dr.  H.  J. 
Webber.  These  are  the  Red  Aschersonia,  Aschersonia 
aleyrodis  Webber,  and  the  Brown  Fungus. 

The   Red   Fungus,    Sphwrostilbe    coccophila    Tul. — 

19 


546  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

When  attacked  by  this  dis- 

ease, the  body  of  the  scale  be- 

comes filled  with  a  mass  of 

fungal    threads    (mycelium) 

and  shortly  after  the  time  of 

attack,  the  insect  is  dead.  By 

the  time  the  fruit  stage  of 

the   fungus   is    reached,    the 

body  of  the  insect  has  been  Fig.  n9.  Red  Fungus  of  scale  insects 

destroyed;  the  scale  covering 


B,       Spore-bearing      bodies       grow- 
remains.  ing  out  of  scales   (enlarged). 

Following  this  period  of  growth  in  the  body  of  the 
insect,  one  or  more  orange-colored,  knob-like  bodies  are 
produced.  Sometimes  these  actually  break  through  the 
scale,  at  other  times  they  emerge  from  the  sides.  One  of 
these,  enlarged,  is  shown  in  Fig.  119.  These  knob-shaped 
bodies  contain  the  spores  which  are  microscopical  in  size. 
By  means  of  them  the  disease  spreads  to  other  insects. 
the  spores  light  upon  or  near  other  scales.  A  delicate 
mycelial  tube  is  produced  which  penetrates  the  body  of  the 
scale  and  its  death  is  brought  about  as  before.  The  spores, 
greatly  enlarged,  are  shown  in  Fig.  119. 

This  fungus  is  quite  effective  in  holding  scale  insects 
in  check.  It  is  also  found  occasionally  on  the  pupae  of 
White  Fly. 

The  Gray  Fungus,  Opheonectria  coccicola  E.  and 
E.  So  far  as  observation  goes,  this  is  probably  the  most 
widely  distributed  fungous  enemy  of  the  citrus  scale  insects 
found  in  Florida.  In  the  early  stages,  the  disease  attacks 
the  scale  much  as  the  Red  Fungus  does.  A  mycelium  is 
produced  which  grows  and  develops  in  the  body  of  the  in- 
sect. 


FUNGOUS  AND  INSECT  FRIENDS. 


547 


Two  kinds  of  spores  are  produced.  The  first  of  these, 
not  heretofore  reported  as  being  produced  by  this  fungus, 
are  borne  in  rather  conical  knobs,  Fig.  120  A.  These  knobs 
are  composed  of  spores  (conidia) 
borne  upon  a  very  short  stalk, 
called  the  conidiophore.  When 
clustered  together  over  the  dead 
scales  these  conidiophores  give 
a  pebbled  appearance  to  the  part. 
They  are  grey  in  color.  The  spores 
(conidia)  Fig.  120B  are  divided  into 
three  parts,  trident-shaped,  the  cen- 
tral one  being  the  largest.  Each 
side  projection  has  from  five  to 
eight  cells,  while  well-developed 
central  ones  have  about  fifteen. 
After  having  dried  for  a  time,  these 
trident-shaped  conidia  spread  apart 
hetd^T  colidiroTspores"  ™  the  application  of  moisture 
sports801'  °r  sp°re  °ases  and  and  thus  are  set  free  from  the 
conidiophore.  If  placed  under  the  microscope  and  a  drop 
of  water  is  added,  they  move  like  animate  objects. 

The  other  kind  of  spores,  (sporidice)  are  twelve  to 
fifteen  celled,  club-shaped  and  produced,  eight  together, 
in  a  spore  case  (Fig.  120  C).  In  this  stage  the  fungus  as- 
sumes a  gray  dirty  buff  color.  These  spores  are  special- 
ly provided  to  carry  the  fungus  through  periods  unsuit- 
able to  its  growth. 

Both  kinds  of  spores  (conidia  and  sporidia)  are  in- 
strumental in  disseminating  the  disease.  It  serves  as  a 
very  efficient  check  in  many  cases  against  the  Long  and 
Purple  scales. 


Fig.   120.     Spores  and  spore 
cases    of    gray-headed    fungus 


548  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

The  Black  Fungus.  Frequently  black  incrustations 
covering  the  dead  bodies  of  scale  insects  may  be  seen  on 
citrus  trees.  This  black  substance  is  a  fungous  growth. 
evidently  a  pyrenomycete,  but  thus  far  no  spores  have 
been  found  in  it  in  Florida.  It  evidently  does  a  great  deal 
toward  holding  scale  insects  in  check  in  Florida,  and 
Prof.  Earle  has  also  found  it  in  Porto  Rico. 

The  Red  Aschersonia.  (Aschersonia  aleyrodis  Web- 
ber). This  is  an  extremely  important  enemy  of  the  White 
Fly,  Aleyrodis  citri.  It  attacks  the  insect  in  the  pupa 
stage.  An  elevated  ruby  or  pinkish  pus- 
tule is  formed  upon  the  pupa.  This  is  sur- 


.  - 

rounded  by  a  little  yellowish  or  whitish          ol  fiYv 
band.     As  the  fungus  matures  the  color  v/  j.1   N^ 

becomes  deep  red.    In  this  red  portion,  the 
spores   (sporules)    of  the  fungus  are  pro-     ^jg-  ^-  Ass^reers 
duced.    These  are  borne  in  pits.    They  are  sonia- 

narrow,  pointed    and    frequently   curved.     Usually  they 
consist  of  but  a  single  cell. 

The  mycelium  of  the  fungus  grows  and  develops  in 
the  body  of  the  pupa3,  the  spore  formation  taking  place 
after  the  insect  is  dead  as  in  other  cases. 

The  fungus,  when  once  established,  spreads  quite 
rapidly  through  a  white-fly-infected  grove.  Unfortunately, 
it  is  not  so  readily  spread,  artificially,  as  the  Grey  Fungus 
of  scale  insects. 

The  Brown  Fungus.  This  fungus  was  first  brought 
to  notice  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Webber,  of  the  United  States  De 
partment  of  Agriculture.  It  is  probably  the  most  effective 
fungous  enemy  of  the  White  Fly. 

The  fungus  forms  hard,  brown  pustules  on  the  pupae 
of  the  insects.  They  are  attacked  when  at  rest  on  the 
leaves.  The  fungus  having  once  gained  a  foothold,  spreads 


FUNGOUS  AND  INSECT  FRIENDS. 


549 


by  means  of  minute  threads  which  grow  out  from  the 
sides  of  the  pustule.  Frequently  it  forms  a  thin,  solid  tis- 
sue over  the  under  side  of  a  citrus  leaf  as  it  grows  from 
pupa  to  pupa. 


Fig.  122.     Fungous  enemies  of  White  Fly    on  the 
pupae  on  orange  leaves,  Brown  Fungus  on  the  left 
Red  Aschersonia  on   the   right 

Thus  far,  the  spores  of  this  fungus  have  not  been  de- 
scribed, and  in  fact  are  not  known  positively  to  exist. 
There  is  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  spores  are  borne 
in  July  and  August  in  Southern  Florida. 

The  fungus  is  disseminated  by  portions  of  the  myce- 
lium blowing  from  one  leaf  or  tree  to  another,  and  prob- 
ably by  means  of  spores. 


550  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

METHODS   OF  DISSEMINATING  THE  SPORES  OF 
BENEFICIAL,  FUNGI. 

The  Red  and  Grey  Fungi  may  be  cultivated  artifi- 
cially in  the  laboratory  and  afterwards  may  be  placed  on 
the  scales,  in  the  grove.  A  plan  which  has  succeeded  in 
some  cases  is  to  take  a  twig  on  which  the  fungus  is  pres- 
ent, and  tie  it  closely  in  contact  with  the  scales  on  an  af- 
fected branch. 

During  the  year  1907,  Mr.  H.  S.  Fawcett,  of  the 
Florida  Experiment  Station,  succeeded  in  producing  cul- 
tures of  both  the  Bed  Aschersonia  and  the  Brown  Fungus, 
on  artificial  media,  in  the  laboratory.  In  the  same  year 
Dr.  E.  W.  Berger,  of  the  same  institution,  successfully 
demonstrated  that  the  Aschersonia  disease  of  the  white 
fly  could  be  distributed  satisfactorily  both  by  spraying 
the  pupa3  with  water  containing  spores  of  the  fungus  and 
by  pinning  leaves,  bearing  pupa3  covered  by  the  fungus 
in  a  fruiting  stage,  in  contact  with  the  insects  on  the 
under  side  of  infected  leaves.  The  most  satisfactory 
results  were  obtaintd  during  the  rainy  season,  using  about 
one  dozen  leaves  to  a  good-sized  tree.  This  plan  will 
doubtless  rapidly  supersede  the  older  plan  of  spreading 
the  fungus  by  planting  a  small  tree,  on  which  it  is  present 
on  the  pupa3,  so  close  to  the  tree  in  which  it  is  desired  to 
introduce  it,  that  the  branches  will  interlap  and  allow 
the  fungus  to  spread  naturally. 

The  success  which  has  rewarded  the  efforts  of  these 
two  workers  marks  another  step  in  the  successful  control 
of  insect  foes  by  means  of  fungi  parasitic  upon  them. 

Insect  Friends.  The  greatest  triumph  of  modern 
economic  entomology  was  the  control  of  the  cottony 
cushion  scale  (Icherya  purchasi)  by  the  imported  Aus- 
tralian ladybug,  Novius  cardinalis.  The  cottony  cushion 
scale  secured  a  strong  foothold  in  California,  and 
threatened  the  destruction  of  the  whole  citrus  industry. 


FUNGOUS   AND   INSECT   FRIENDS. 


551 


Spraying  and  fumigating  were  attempted  with  in- 
different success,  when  the  happy  suggestion  was  made 
by  Mr.  Alexander  Craw,  to  send  some  one  to  Australia, 
to  find  and  introduce  the  natural  enemies  of  the  pest. 
This  was  accomplished  through  the  co-operation  of  the 
United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  Mr.  Frank  Mc- 
Coppin,  of  San  Francisco,  United 
States  Commissioner  to  the  Mel- 
bourne (Australia)  Exposition. 
Mr.  Albert  Koebele  was  selected 
to  do  the  work.  The  task  was 
successfully  accomplished.  He 
found  the  natural  enemy,  Novius 
cardinalis.  It  was  sent  to  Cali- 
fornia, thrived  in  its  new  home 
and  speedily  destroyed  the  dread- 
ed Icherya  purchasi. 
When  the  cottony  cushion  scale 
became  established  in  Florida, 
Prof.  H.  A.  Gossard,  of  the 
Florida  Experiment  Station,  was 
instrumental  in  introducing  the 
ladybug  from  California,  and  the 
ravages  of  the  insect  were  again 
checked. 

Following  this  signal  triumph, 
the  attention  of  entomologists 
has  been  directed  to  this  means 
of  insect  control.  The  mealybug 
has  been  checked  in  California 
by  a  ladybug,  Cryptolaemus  montrouzieri,  which  preys 
upon  it.  Another,  RhizoMus  ventralis  has  proved  effective 
as  an  enemy  of  the  Black  scale,  Lecanium. 


Fig.  123.  Ladybug  pupae  on  orange 
twig.  One  mature  insect  may  be 
seen  near  the  bottom. 


552 


CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 


In  Florida  the  two-spotted  ladybug  is  an  effective 
enemy  of  scale  insects.  The  ladybugs  are  very  common 

throughout  the  State.  The  pupa? 
are  shown  in  Fig.  123.  One 
mature  insect  is  shown  on  the 
right  of  the  twig  near  its  base. 
Both  the  larvae  and  the  mature 
insects  feed  upon  scale  insects. 

The  Hemispherical  scale  in 
Florida  is  usually  held  in  check 
by  internal  parasites  of  the  order 
Hymenaptera.  Insects  of  the 
same  class  usually  destroy  the 
green  lice  or  plant  lice  (Aphis) 
which  frequently  infest  the  new 
growth  on  citrus  trees.  The 
appearance  of  the  parasitized 
plant  lice  is  well  shown  in  Fig. 
124.  The  bodies  of  the  aphids 
are  congested,  swollen  and  globu- 
lar. The  minute  openings,  from 
which  the  parasites  emerge  after 

having  matured  inside  the  bodies  of  the  aphids,  are  repre- 
sented by  round,  black  dots  on  the  swollen  bodies. 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  advances  which  may  be  made 
along  these  lines.  We  have  probably  but  entered  upon  an 
era  which  may  see  our  methods  of  combating  insects 
entirely  changed. 


Fig.  124.      Parasitized  plant 
lice  on  an  orange  tree. 


PART  IV 

LITERATURE 


CHAPTER    XLV. 

AMERICAN  CITRUS  LITERATURE. 

Literature  on  the  culture  of  citrus  fruits  in  America 
is  brief  and  scattered.  In  this  country  no  monumental 
work,  such  as  Ferrari's  Hesperides,  Volckamer's  Hesper- 
ides  Norimbergensium,  Gallesio's  Traite  du  Citrus,  or 
Risso  &  Poiteau's  Histoire  et  Culture  des  Grangers,  has 
been  produced.  The  following  list  comprises  nearly  all 
that  has  been  published,  except  that  which  may  be  found 
in  the  Reports  of  the  Florida  State  Horticultural  Soci- 
ety and  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Horticulture. 
Many  of  the  books  and  papers  listed  are  out  of  print  and 
are  no  longer  available.  Most  of  the  publications  of  the 
Experiment  Stations,  both  of  California  and  Florida, 
can  still  be  obtained. 

Adee,  Alvery  A.  The  Orange  and  the  Lemon  in  Fruit 
Culture  in  Foreign  Countries.  Reports  of  the  Con- 
suls of  the  United  States  on  fruit  culture  in  their 
several  districts  in  answer  to  a  circular  letter  from 
the  Department  of  State.  Washington:  Government 
Printing  Office.  1890.  Part  1,  pp.  399-585.  Special 
Consular  Report  U.  S.  Dept.  of  State. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture.  New 
York:  The  Macmillan  Company;  Copyrt.  1900-02. 
Numerous  articles  by  different  writers;  see  citrus, 
orange,  lemon,  lime,  pomelo,  citron  and  kumquat. 

Davis,  George  W.  A  Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  the 
Orange  and  other  Citrus  Fruits.  Jacksonville:  Ash- 
mead  Bros.  Copyrt.  1881-1882.  Pp.  iv.  and  86. 


556  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Downing,  A.  J.  The  Orange  Family  in  Fruits  and  Fruit 
Trees  of  America.  New  York :  John  Wiley  &  G.  Put- 
nam. Ninth  Ed.  1849;  pp  542-546. 

Garey,  Thos.  A.  Orange  Culture  in  California.  San 
Francisco:  Pacific  Rural  Press.  Copyrt.  1882-1883. 
Pp.  210.  App.  on  Grape  Culture  by  L.  J.  Rose.  Pp. 
210-227. 

Goff,  E.  S.  Citrus  Fruits  in  Lessons  in  Commercial 
Frulit  Growing.  Madison :  University  Cooperative 
Association.  Copyrt.  1902.  1902.  Sec.  4;  pp.  101- 
105. 

Gossard,  H.  A.  Some  Common  Florida  Scales.  Jack- 
sonville: The  H.  &  W.  B.  Drew  Co.,  1900.  Illustr.; 
pp.  106-128.  Bulletin  No.  51,  Florida  Agri.  Exp. 
Station. 

The  Cottony  Cushion  Scale.  DeLand:  E.  O. 
Painter  &  Co.  1901.  Illustr. ;  pp.  310-356.  Bulletin 
No.  56,  Florida  Agri.  Exp.  Station. 

White  Fly.     DeLand:     E.   O.   Painter  &  Co. 


1903.  Illustr.;  pp.  595-666.  Bulletin  No.  67,  Flor- 
ida Agri.  Exp.  Station. 

Hart,  E.  H.  Citrus  Fruits.  In  the  American  Fruit  Cul- 
turist,  by  J.  J.  Thomas.  Twentieth  Ed.,  by  William 
H.  S.  Wood.  New  York :  Wm.  Wood  &  Co.  Copyrt. 
1897.  1897.  Part  3;  Chap.  25;  pp.  558-588. 

Harcourt,  H.  "Culture  of  Citrus  Fruits"  in  Florida. 
Fruits  and  How  to  Raise  Them.  Revised  and  En- 
larged Edition.  Louisville:  J.  P.  Morton  &  Co. 
Copyrt.  1886.  1886.  Chap.  I-XVII;  pp.  9-116. 

Henderson,  Peter.  Citrus  in  Henderson's  Handbook  of 
Plants  and  General  Horticulture.  New  edition. 
New  York:  Peter  Henderson  &  Co.  Copyrt.  1889. 
1890.  Page  88. 


AMERICAN  CITRUS  LITERATURE.  557 

Hubbard,  H.  G.  Insects  Affecting  the  Orange.  Report 
on  Insects  Affecting  the  Culture  of  the  Orange  and 
Other  Plants  of  the  Citrus  Family,  with  Practical 
Suggestions  for  their  Control  or  Extermination, 
made  under  direction  of  the  Entomologist.  Wash- 
ington:  Govt.  Printing  Office.  1885.  Illustr.  Pp. 
227.  Division  of  Entomology,  II.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri. 
Hume,  H.  Harold.  Some  Citrus  Troubles.  Jacksonville: 
H.  &  W.  B.  Drew  Co.  1900.  Illustr.  pp.  145-180. 
Bulletin  No.  53,  Florida  Agri.  Exp.  Station. 

Pomelos.  Jacksonville:  H.  &  W.  B.  Drew  Co. 
1901.  Illustr.  pp.  381-421.  Bulletin  No.  58,  Flor- 
ida Agri.  Exp.  Station. 

Diagrams  for  Packing  Citrus  Fruits,  with  brief 
directions.  DeLand:  E.  O.  Painter  &  Co.  1902. 
Illustr.  folio.  Bulletin  No.  63,  Florida  Agri.  Exp. 
Station. 

Kumquats.  DeLand:  E.  0.  Painter  &  Co.  1902. 
Illustr.  pp.  551-516. '  Bulletin  No.  65,  Florida  Agri. 
Exp.  Station. 

The  Mandarin  Orange  Group.     DeLand:  E.   O. 
Painter  &  Co.     1903.     Illustr.  pp.  567-594.     Bulletin 
No.  66,  Florida  Agri.  Exp.  Station. 
Cultivation   of   Citrus   Groves.     Jacksonville: 


Industrial  Record  Printing  Co.     1904.     Illstr.  Bulle- 
tin No.  69.    Florida  Agri.  Exp.  Station. 
Klee,  W.  G.     Citrus  Fruits — Orange,  Lemon,  Lime,  etc., 
in   the   Report   on   the   Condition   of   Tropical    and 
Semi-Tropical  Fruits  in  the  United  States  in  1887. 
1887.  pp.  111-124.    Bulletin  No.  1,  Division  of  Pomol- 
ogy, U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
The  same.    Reprint.    1891. 


558  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Lelong,  B.  M.  Culture  of  the  Citrus  in  California.  Sac- 
ramento :  A.  J.  Johnson,  Supt.  State  Printing.  1902. 
Illustr.  pp.  267. 

Marlatt,  C.  L.  The  Scale  Insect  and  Mite  Enemies  of 
Citrus  Trees,  in  Yearbook  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture. 1900.  Washington :  Govt.  Printing  Office. 
1901.  Illustr.  pp.  247-290. 

Manville,  A.  H.  Practical  Orange  Culture,  Including  the 
Culture  of  the  Orange,  Lemon,  Lime  and  other  Citrus 
Fruits,  as  Grown  in  Florida.  Jacksonville:  Ash- 
mead  Bros.  1883.  pp.  VI.  116. 

Mills,  J.  W.  Citrus  Fruit  Culture.  Sacramento:  A.  J. 
Johnson,  Supt.  State  Printing.  1902.  1902.  Illustr. 
pp.  46.  Bulletin  No.  138, ,  University  of  California, 
College  of  Agriculture,  Agri.  Exp.  Station. 

Moore,  T.  W.  Treatise  and  Handbook  on  Orange  Culture 
in  Florida.  Jacksonville:  Florida  Sun  &  Press. 
Copyrt.  1877.  1877.  pp.  VI— 67. 

The  same.  Second  edition.  New  York :  E.  R. 
Pel  ton  &  Co.  Jacksonville:  Ashmead  Bros.  Copyrr. 
1881.  1881.  pp.  IX— 170. 

The  same.    Third  edition.    Revised  and  enlarged, 


embracing  Florida,  Louisiana  and  California.  New 
York:  E.  R.  Pelton  &  Co.  Jacksonville:  Ashmead 
Bros.  Copyrt.  1881.  1883.  pp.  IX— 170. 

Reasoner,  P.  W.  Orange,  Pomelo,  Lemon,  etc.,  in  the 
Report  on  the  Condition  of  Tropical  and  Semi-Trop- 
ical  Fruits  in  the  United  States  in  1887.  Washing- 
ton:  Govt.  Printing  Office.  1887.  pp.  57-87.  Bul- 
letin No.  1,  Division  of  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 

The  same.     Reprint.     1891. 


AMERICAN  CITRUS  LITERATURE.  559 

Spalding,  W.  A.  The  Orange:  Its  Culture  in  Califor- 
nia, with  a  brief  discussion  on  the  Lemon,  Lime  and 
Other  Citrus  Fruits.  Riverside:  Press  &  Horticul- 
turist Steam  Print.  Copyrt.  1884.  1885.  Illustr. 
pp.  VIII— 97. 

Stubbs,  W.  C.  &  Morgan,  H.  A.  The  Orange  and  Other 
Citrus  Fruits  from  Seed  to  Market,  with  Insects 
Beneficial  and  Injurious,  with  Remedies  for  the  Lat- 
ter. Baton  Rouge;  Truth  Book  and  Job  Office.  1893. 
Illustr.  pp.  110.  Special  Bulletin  of  the  Louisiana 
Exp.  Station. 

Swingle,  W.  T.  &  Webber,  H.  J.  The  Principal  Diseases 
of  Citrus  Fruits  in  Florida,  Washington:  Govt* 
Printing  Office.  1896.  Illustr.  pp.  VIII— 32.  Bul- 
letin No.  8,  Division  of  Pomology  and  Pathology, 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Van  Deman,  H.  E.  Report  on  the  Relative  Merits  of 
Various  Stocks  for  the  Orange,  with  Notes  on  Mal- 
di-goma  and  the  Mutual  Influence  of  Stock  and  Scion. 
Washington:  Govt.  Printing  Office.  1891.  pp.  21. 
Bulletin  No.  4,  Division  of  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 

Webber,  H.  J.  Methods  of  Propagating  the  Orange  and 
Other  Citrus  Fruits  in  Yearbook  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  1896.  Washington :  Govt.  Printing  Of- 
fice. 1897.  Illustr.  pp.  471-488. 

Fertilization  of  the  Soil  as  Affecting  the  Orange 
in  Health  and  Disease,  in  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1894.     Washington:  Govt. 
Printing  Office.     1895.     Illustr.  pp.  193-202. 
The  same.     Reprint. 


560  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

—     Sooty  Mold  of  the  Orange  and  Its  Treatment. 

Washington:   Govt.  Printing  Office.     1897.     Illustr. 

pp.   IV— 30.     Bulletin   No.   13,   Division   Physiology 

and  Pathology,  IT.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
White,  W.  N.    Citrus — The  Orange  Family,  in  Gardening 

for   the   South.     New   York:    C.    M.    Saxton   &   Co. 

Copyrt.  1856.    1856.    pp.  327-330. 

Orange,  Lemon,  etc.,  in  Gardening  for  the  South, 

second   edition,    by   J.   Van    Buren    &   Jas.    Camak. 

New  York :  Orange  Judd  &  Co.    Copyrt.    1868.  1868. 

pp.  382-384. 
Whitner,  J.  N.     Kumquat — Otaheite  Orange,  Orange  in 

Gardening  in  Florida,   a  Treatise  on  the  vegetables 

and   Tropical    Fruits   of   Florida.     Jacksonville:    C. 

W.  DaCosta.     Copyrt.     1884.     1885.  pp.  210-216. 
Wickson,  E.  J.     The  Orange,  Lemon,  Lime,  etc.,  in  The 

California  Fruits   and  How   to   Grow  Them.     Third 

edition.       San     Francisco :       Pacific     Rural     Press. 

Copyrt.   1889.     1900.     Chap.  XXX-XXXL,  pp.  331- 

380. 
Woodworth,  C.  W.    Orange  and  Lemon  Rot.  Sacramento  : 

A.  J.  Johnson,  Supt.  State  Printing,  1902.     Illustr. 

pp.  12.     Bulletin  No.  139,  University  of  California, 

College  of  Agriculture,  Agri.  Exp.  Station. 

The  Red  Spider  of  Citrus  Trees.    Berkeley :  The 

University  Press.     1902.     Illustr.  pp.   19.     Bulletin 

No.  145,  University  of  California,  College  of  Agri- 
culture, Agri.  Exp.  Station. 


PART  V 


APPENDIX 


CHAPTER    XLVI. 
VARIETY  LISTS. 

Every  grower  has  his  own  preferences  and  his  own 
ideals.  Hence  the  following  lists  may  not  meet  with  the 
approval  of  every  one.  No  mention  is  made  of  the  regions 
to  which  they  are  adapted,  as  this  has  been  touched  upon 
in  the  chapters  on  varieties. 

SWEET   ORANGES. 

Very  Early. — Boone,  Early  Oblong. 
Early. — Enterprise,  Centennial,     Nonpareil,     Parson 
Brown. 

Medium. — Bahia,  Pineapple,  Ruby,  St.  Michaels 
(Blood),  Homosassa,  Indian  River,  Jaffa,  Magnum  Bo- 
num  Maltese  Blood,  Old  Vini. 

Late. — DuRoi,  Maltese  Oval,  Paper  Rind. 

Very  Late. — Bessie,  Hart,  Joppa,  Valencia. 

MANDARIN    ORANGES. 

Early. — Satsuma. 
Medium. — China,  Dancy. 
Late. — Oneco. 
Very  Late. — King. 

POMELOS. 

Medium  Early. — Aurantium,  Triumph. 
Medium    and    Late. — Duncan,    Marsh,    Pernambuco, 
Standard,  Royal. 


564  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE. 

KUMQUATS. 

Nagami  and  Marumi. 

CITRONS. 

Lemon. 

LEMONS. 

Eureka,  Genoa,  Lisbon,  Villafranca. 

LIMES. 
Mexican,  Tahiti. 


INDEX. 

PAGE 

9,    22 

Adee,   report  by 555 

Air  drainage   226,  227 

Aleyrodes    citri 514 

Ammonia,  sulphate  of 308,  309 

Ammoniacal  solution    527 

Analyses  of  fruits 298 

Anther    148 

Anthracnose    474 

Aphis    551 

Artesian   wells,    Florida    322 

Aschersonia  aleyrodis    545,  548 

Aspidiot'us  aurantii   502 

Aspidiotus  ficus    502 

Associations    461 

Atlantia    7 

Bags,  picking 407 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  reference  to  work  by 555 

Banking    348 

Barnacle  scale  508 

—treatment  for   509 

Baronio,  A.  C.,  quoted 383 

— system  of  pruning 382 

Baskets,  picking  407 

Bean,  E.,  quoted 428 

Beggarweed,  nitrogen  in   293 

Beggarweed  cover  crop    292 

Bigarade  oranges    16,  25 

Bigarade  orange,  introduction  of 26 

— Macfayden  on    25 

— varieties    69 

—Bitter  Sweet    69 

—Filler    70 

—Sour    71 

Black  fungus  548 


566  CITRUS   FRUITS   AND    THEIR    CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Black  scale  505 

treatment  of    506 

Blair,  A.  W 293,  298 

Blight,  citrus  tree   490 

— cause  of 491 

— treatment   for    491 

Blood  oranges  31,     90 

— early  reference  to 32 

Bolton  thermometer    339 

Bone,   dissolved    304,  305 

— ground     305 

Bordeaux  mixture    523 

Boxes    435,  436 

—field    406 

Box  frame    439 

Brioze,    G.,    quoted 468 

Brown   fungus    545,  548 

Budding    183 

— curved    191 

— dormant     183 

— knives    182 

— old  trees   191 

—right-angled    189 

—spring    183 

— summer 183 

Budwood    176 

— selection   of    177 

— storing 179 

Bur   clover    296 

California  citrus  production    4 

— lemon  standards  161 

— orange  standards    158 

Calyx 148 

Canadian  markets    6 

Car,   standard    456 

Cattle-penning    468 

Ceroplastes   cirripediformis    508 

— ftoridensis    507 

Chaddock    44 

Chadec    .  .   44 


INDEX.  567 

PAGE 

Chaff  scale    503 

Chemicals  in  fumigating  540 

Chionaspis  citri 503 

Citranges    24,  67,  68 

Citron 18,     59 

—history  of    59 

— importations    • 60 

— introduction  of  59 

— regions    60 

—list  of  564 

Citron  varieties    133 

— Lemon    133 

— Lyman    133 

— Orange    133 

— Sorrento    133 

Citrus  Aurantium  16 

— botany    11 

— decumana    17 

— evolution   11 

— fruit  packages   432 

—insects 493 

— Japonica    '. 18 

— leaves  of  9 

—Limetta    19 

— Limonum    19 

— literature    555 

— Medica    18 

— nooilis     17 

— nursery 173 

— "over  supply"    5 

—soils    219 

—statistics 4 

— stocks    197 

—trifolia    22 

—trifoliata 15 

— trifoliata,  introduction  of 22 

—trifoliata,  literature  of  22 

— t'riptera  22 

— vulgaris   16 


568  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Citrus  trifoliata  varieties    22,  23,  24,  67 

— Colman    67 

— Morton    68 

— Rusk    68 

—Rustic    68 

— Savage    68 

Cladosporium  elegans    472 

Clean  culture   267 

Clearing  land  233 

Clearings,    partial    233 

Cleft-grafting    192 

Clippers,  orange   405 

Close  planting    469 

Coal  fires    355 

— California  experience  356 

Collet'otrichum   gleosporioides    474 

Commission  merchants   458,  565 

Comquot    53 

Corolla    146 

Cotton-seed   meal    307 

Cottony-cushion    scale    509 

— remedies  for   512 

Cover  crops    285 

—benefits  of 285 

— in  California   295 

— kinds   of    286 

Crab-grass    295 

Griddle  mixture   530 

Crosses     146 

Crown-grafting    194 

Crude  carbolic  acid   525 

Crude  petroleum    359 

Cryptolaemus   montrouzieri    552 

Cultivation     235,  263 

Cultivation  and  dormancy    281 

— and  irrigation    276 

— implements  for  282 

—depth  of   273 

frequency  of    , 275 

Cultivators    .  ..282 


INDEX.  569 

PAGE 

Cumquot    53 

Curing 412 

— lemons    415 

— oranges    ' 414 

— pomelos    414 

Cuttings .' 174 

Dactylopius  citri  513 

Davis,  Geo.  W.,  book  by 555 

Die-back   282,  287,  308,  344,  377,  486 

— causes  of  487 

—treatment  of    489 

Digging  trees    259 

Diseases    465 

—and  frosts   344 

Distances,  planting 243 

Don,  G.,  quoted   47 

Dormancy   281,  317,  345 

—and  frosts   3'45 

Downing,  A.  J.,  quoted 55 

— reference  to   556 

Chas.,  quoted  48 

Drainage 469 

Dwarf  varieties    394 

Dyer,  H.  L 298 

Effects  of  curing   412 

Emasculation    151 

Essential  Organs   149 

Experiments  with  stocks  207 

Exposure 231 

Fecundation    149 

Ferrari,  Baptiste,  quoted 34 

Feronia    7,     8 

Fertilization 149 

Fertilizer  formulas    309 

Fertilizers,  amounts  of 300,  315 

—applying    317 

— for  bearing  trees   314 

— for  young  trees  310 

Fertilizing,  relation  to  dormancy  317 

Filament  ..148 


570  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Filer  Bigarade  orange 69 

Field  boxes  406 

— wagons    410 

Fires    352 

Float    242 

Florida,  citrus  production  4 

— lemon  standards  157 

— orange  standards   157 

Flower  parts   146 

Fly-speck  fungus    481 

—treatment  of    482 

Foot-rot     466 

— treatment  of    470 

Formulas,  fertilizer  309 

Fortune,  quoted    55 

Fruit,  effects  of  cold  on 342 

Frosts  and  diseases  344 

— dormancy    345 

— food  supply    345 

—insects    344 

— stocks    346 

Frost  protection  128,  337 

— warnings    337 

Fruit  clippers    405 

— green,  shipping 247 

Fumigating    537 

— time    541 

Fungous  diseases 465,  466 

— friends   545 

— friends,  dissemination  of 550 

Fusisporium  limonii   468 

Gallesio    32 

Garey,  Thos.  A.,  book  by 556 

Genus,   Citrus 15 

Goff,  E.  S.,  reference  to  556 

Gossard,  H.  A.,  quoted 479,  537 

—bulletins  by   556 

Grades    424 

—California    425 

— Florida    425 

— recommended   .  ..425 


INDEX.  571 

PAGE 

Grading    423 

—time    425 

Grafting 191 

—cleft    192 

—iron    182 

— twine    181 

—wax    180 

—whip 194 

Grapefruit,  see  pomelo. 

Grapefruit,  origin  of  name   44 

Grasshoppers    494 

—treatment   for    495 

Gray    Fungus 545 

Grove  plans    235 

—setting  the 247 

Gum   disease    466 

Harcourt,  H.,  reference  to  556 

Hard-pan  219,  223,  276 

Hardy  varieties  347 

Harrows     283 

Hart,  E.  H.,  quoted 38 

— reference  to    33,  556 

Hart,  W.  S.,  quoted  235,  406 

Headers    448 

Hemispherical  scale   506 

—treatment  for 506 

Henderson,  Peter,  reference  to   556 

Heterodera  radicicola   286 

High-headed   trees 375 

Hubbard,  B.   S 33,     97 

Hubbard,  H.  G.,  bulletin  by 557 

Hume,  H.  Harold,  quoted 33,  201 

—bulletins  by 557 

Humus   267,  270 

Hybrids    146 

leery  a  purchasi    509 

Inarching   196 

Insect  factor  in  location   231 

— friends    .  ..550 


572  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Insects  and  frost   344 

—biting  496 

Insects,  classification  of  495 

—on  pot  plants    397 

— sucking   495 

Irresponsible  firms    460 

Irrigation    319 

— check 333 

—districts    320 

— factor    231 

— furrow    332 

—in  California   328 

— in   Florida    320 

James,  quoted    356 

Judging  citrus    155 

Juice  sacks  in  classification 14 

Kaempfer,   quoted    5% 

Kahle's   distillate    530 

Kerosene  emulsion    529 

Kid-glove   oranges    38 

Kin  Jean    53 

Kin  kuit    53 

Klee,  W.  G.,  bulletin  by 559 

Knife,  pruning  182,  383 

Knives,    budding 181 

Kumquat    18,     53 

— carrier    435 

— introduction  of   54 

—list    564 

— references  to   54 

— size  of  bush   55 

— uses  of 57 

Kumquat  varieties   129 

Oblong    129 

Olive-shaped    129 

Nagami     129 

Marumi    129 

Round    129 

Sour    .  ..130 


INDEX.  573 

PAGE 

Labels,  nursery  182 

—tree 262 

Ladders 411 

Lakes  in  Florida   322 

Laying  out  244 

Leaf-spot    475 

— treatment  of    477 

Leaves,  effects  of  cold  on   340 

Lecanium  hemisphfericum .  .    508 

— hesperidum   506 

— oleic     507 

Leffinwell,  C.  W.,  quoted 385 

Legumes,  list  of  286 

Lemon  19 

—box   439 

— importations    61 

—packing  . .    . .    421 

— packing  houses    422 

— pruning 382 

— scab 472 

Lemons 61 

— and   limes,   identity   of    13 

— in  California   62 

— in  Florida 62 

— introduction  of    62 

—list  of  564 

—  uses  of -r-. . .  ,-i-v-Vv-n- 63 

Lemon  varieties 135 

Eureka 135 

Everbearing 136 

Florida  Rough   138 

French   138 

Genoa    . .  136 

Lisbon 137 

Ponderosa     137 

Rough 138 

Sicily    139 

Sweet    139 

Villafranca  .  .  .140 


574  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Leonard,  G.  W.,   quoted    372 

Lelong,  B.  M.,  quoted   29,  33,  374,  427 

— report  by 560 

Leptothyrium  Pomi    483 

Leveling    241 

Lichens 486 

— on  leaves   487 

— treatment  for 488 

Lime   19 

— carrier    438 

— Mexican 66 

— Rangpur    66 

— stock    218 

Lime  varieties    141 

Mexican 141 

Rangpur    142 

Rungpore    142 

Rungpur    142 

Tahiti    143 

Lime,  crude  carbolic  acid  and  salt  527 

— functions  of   303 

Limes    65 

— introduction  of 65 

—list  of    564 

— uses  of  66 

Long  scale   502 

— treatment   for    504 

Lopping  189 

Low-headed  trees   375 

Lupines   296 

Luttichau,  H.  von.,  quoted   290 

Making    packages    440 

Mal-di-goma    63,  468 

Mandarin,  significance  of   38 

Mandarin  oranges   17,  37 

— Bonavia   on    40 

— hardiness  of   42 

— history   of    39 

— introduction    of    .  .40 


INDEX.  575 

PAGE 

Mandarin  oranges — Continued. 

—list   of    563 

— status   of    41 

— strap    437 

Mandarin  orange — varieties. 

Beauty     99 

Beauty  of  Glen  Retreat  99 

Bijou    103 

China     100 

China  Celestial  100 

Cleopatra    101 

Dancy   103 

Dancy's  t'angierine    103 

Kid-glove  tangierine 100 

King    104 

King  of  Siam   104 

Kinneloa    106 

Kino    Kuni    107 

Mikado    108 

Moragne's  tangierine   103 

Oneco    108 

Oonshiu    110 

Satsuma 110 

Spice   tangierine    101 

Tangierine    103 

Tangerona 112 

Willow-leaved    100 

Manville,  A.  H.,  book  by  560 

Maps  262 

Marlatt,  C.  L.,  report  by  560 

McAlpine,  quoted 485 

McKinney,  J.  Y.,  quoted 350 

Mead,  Theo.  L.,  quoted 366 

Mealy-bug 515 

— treatment    516 

Mediterranean    oranges    31,  82 

Melanose  484 

—treatment  of  486 

Meliola    .  . .  479 


576  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Mexican   lime    66 

Miller,  H.  K 289,  298 

Mills,  J.  W.,  quoted 216,  218,  260,  276 

—bulletin   by    560 

Moore,  T.  W.,  reference  to   48 

—books   by    560 

Morgan,  H.  A.,  bulletin  by  561 

Mosquito-net  sack 154 

Mucuna    utilis    288 

Murraya  exotica  8 

Mytilaspis   citricola    500 

— gloverii  502 

Navel    oranges    32,     93 

Need  of  curing    414 

Newell,  F.  H.,  quoted   328 

Nitrate   of    Soda    307 

Nitrogen,  functions  of   302 

— organic  sources  of 308 

—nodules   286 

— sources    of    307 

Novius   cardinalis    514,  553 

Nursery,  citrus   175 

Nurserymen    250 

Oil  cells  in  classification  13 

Open-center  pruning   385 

Ophionectria  coccicola   547 

Orangeade    26 

Orange  box    437 

— chionaspis   505 

Orange-dog    497 

treatment  for    499 

Orange    marmalade     .'• 26 

— rust  mite   520 

Oranges,   blood    90 

— Mediterranean    82 

—Navel    93 

— Spanish    73 

Originating  new  varieties  145 

Otaheite  orange  stock 393 


INDEX.  577 

PAGE 

Ovary    149 

Ovules    ..  . 149 

Packages    434 

Packing    430 

— conveniences 443 

— diagrams 448 

— dont's    452 

— early  experiences  in 430 

—fruit    446 

— houses    454 

Paper  for  wrapping  fruit   443 

Papilio  cresphontes   497 

Parlatoria  pergandii    505 

Peddlers,  tree 252 

PenicilUum   Italicum 477 

Petal    146 

Petroleum,  crude 359 

— pots,  Froude's   359 

Phosphate,  acid  304 

— super    304 

Phosphoric  acid,  functions  of   301 

— sources  of  304 

Physiological  diseases   467,  488 

Phytoptus   oleivorus 520 

Pickers    413 

Picking 413 

—bags     409 

— baskets 409 

— fruit,  time 405 

—ladders    412 

Pistil 148 

Plant  food,  sources  of 304 

Planting 255 

— board .  256 

— distances 243 

Planting  systems    ....... 236 

—Double    240 

— Equilateral   triangles    238 

—Hedge ..239 


578  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Planting  systems — Continued. 

—Hexagonal    238 

— Quincunx     239 

— Rectangular    237 

—Septuple    238 

— Square    237 

— Triangular    236 

Planting  time   252 

Plow-sole    276 

Pollen    148 

Pollination    150 

— instruments  for  147,  151 

— records    155 

Pomelo     17 

—box    437 

— early  references  to 43 

— history  of   47 

—in  California   249 

— introduction  of    46 

— judging  scale    163 

— opinions   on    47 

— origin  of  name .   43 

—seeds    168 

—standards    163 

—stock   217 

— uses  of  the 50 

Pomelo  varieties   115 

Aurantium    115 

DeSoto    116 

Duncan    117 

Excelsior    117 

Excelsior  Late  117 

Hall    117 

H alls    117 

Indian  River   125 

Josselyn    118 

Klemm's  Silver  Cluster  117 

Leonardy    119 

Manville    .  ..119 


INDEX.  579 

PAGE 

Manville's  Improved  119 

Marsh    120 

Marsh's  Seedless    120 

May    121 

May's     121 

McKinley    121 

Nocatee    122 

Orange  115 

Pernambuco   124 

Royal    125 

Silver   Cluster    117 

Standard    125 

Tresca   115 

Triumph    125 

Walter   126 

Walters     126 

Pomelos,  list    563 

Potash,  functions  of   302 

— sources  of  307 

— whale-oil  soap   529 

— whale-oil  soap  and  soda-sulphur  solution   532 

Pot  culture  393 

Pot  plants,  list   395 

Presses    450 

Private   trade    459 

Propagation    167 

Pruning   375 

—for  die-back 377 

— for  insects 377 

— frozen  tr^es 378 

— pot  plants   396 

— shears 182 

—time  for 382 

— tools    380 

—tops 258 

Pseudtegle  .    22 

Pumping  water  324 

Purchasing  trees 250 


580  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Purple  mite   523 

— treatment  for  523 

Purple  scale  500 

— treatment  for  502 

Rainfall  in  Florida  320 

Rangpur  lime 66 

Reasoner,  P.  W.,  reports  by  560 

Red  Aschersonia 547,  550 

Red  fungus  547 

Red  scale,  California  504 

Red  scale,  Florida  504 

— treatment  for  504,  505 

Red  spider  523 

— treatment  for 523 

Removing  banks 471 

Resin  wash  528 

RhizoMus  ventralis  553 

Ripe  rot 477 

— treatment  for  479 

Root  branching 254 

—knot 286 

— trimming  254 

Ross,  S.,  quoted 334 

Rough-lemon  seed  170 

— stock  200 

Rust  mite  520 

— treatment  for  521 

Rutacece  family  7,  14 

Sacks  used  in  pollination  150,  154 

Sand-case  351 

Sand-spurs  295 

Sampson,  F.  G.,  quoted 403 

Satsuma,  hardiness  of  42 

Saunders,  Wm 22,  67 

Saws,  pruning 381 

Scab  199,  472 

— remedies  for  475 

—varieties  affected  by   472 


INDEX.  581 

PAGE 

Scales,  armored 500 

unarmored 506 

Scales  of  points,  judging 155 

Seed-beds     171 

Seedling  trees 167 

Seed  selection 170 

Seeds,  care  of  170 

Sepals 148 

Seville  orange   16 

Shaddock    18 

— distinct  from  pomelo   51,     52 

— introduction  of   51 

— uses  of  51 

Shaddock  varieties    127 

Mammoth 127 

Pink     127 

Shaddock,  synonomy  of  45 

Shears,  pruning    381 

Shed,  Haw  Creek  369 

— Leonard's 370 

— Mead's    366 

— Swift's    367 

Sheds    363 

—California    372 

— Citra   371 

— Steven's  pattern   364 

Sherwood   harness    283 

Shield-budding 188 

Shime,  C.  H 205 

Shipments,  dividing 461 

— spasmodic 461 

Shipping    456 

— fruit  experience 403 

Side-grafting    195 

Silver  mite  520 

Six-spotted  mite   521 

— treatment  for 523 

Sizers 429 

Sizing  .  .429 


582  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Sloane,  Hans.,  quoted   51 

Smoothing    241 

Snow  scale   505 

— remedies  for 506 

Soda-sulphur  solution   530 

Soils,  California  222 

—Cuba    223 

—flat   woods 220 

—Florida  220 

— for  pot  plants   394 

— high  hammock    221 

— Louisiana    222 

— low  hammock    221 

— pine  land   220 

Sooty  fungus  483 

Sooty-mold    479 

— effects,  of,  on  trees 481 

—treatment   for    483 

Sour  Bigarade  orange  , 70 

Sour  orange   16 

— scab    472 

— seeds    170 

—stock    198 

Spalding,  W.  A.,  book  by 561 

— quoted    48 

Spanish   oranges    30,     73 

Sphwrostilbe  coccophila   547 

Spraying    536 

— formulas    525 

— vs.  non-spraying   545 

Stamens 148 

Stenciling    453 

Stevens,  J.  A.,  quoted  371 

Stocks  and  frosts  346 

— and  mal-di-goma   469 

Strap,  mandarin    437 

Strigula  complanata   487 

Stryker,  Thos.  H.,  quoted   369 

Stubbs.  W.  C.,  bulletin  by 561 


INDEX.  583 

PAGE 

Style    149 

Sub-soiling 235,  278 

Substitutions    252 

Sucking  insects  other  than  scales   516 

Sulphur-lime  solution    531 

Sulphurous  acid 528 

Super-phosphate    304 

Surprise   orange    33 

Sweet  oranges   16,  27 

— groups   30 

— introduction  of 28 

—in  California  . . . ". 29 

—list   563 

— seeds 169 

— stocks     216 

Sweet  Orange  varieties  73 

Acme    73 

Arcadia    73 

Australian    94 

Bahia    94 

Beach's  Acme    73 

Beache's  No.  4  80 

Bessie 82 

Boone    74 

Boone's  Early 74 

Buena  Vista 80 

Centennial  82 

Circassian     83 

Double    95 

Double  Imperial 94 

Dr.  May's  Best 79 

Dummitt   74 

DuRoi 83 

Early  Oblong 75 

Egyptian    95 

Enterprise 75 

Enterprise  Seedless   75 

Everbearing    85 

Exquisite    .84 


584  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Sweet  orange  varieties — Continued. 

Foster    , 76 

Giddings 74 

Hart    89 

Hart's  Late  89 

Hart's   Tardiff   . 89 

Hick 77 

Hick's  Sweet  Seville  77 

Homosassa    77 

Imperial    94 

Indian  River 78 

Jaffa    85 

John  SauVs  Sweet  Blood 92 

Joppa    86 

Joppa  Late  86 

Madam  Vinous    78 

Magnum  Bonum   78 

Majorca 86 

Maltese 90 

Maltese  Oval  87 

Marquis    87 

May 79 

Melitensis    96 

Nonpareil   79 

Old  Vini   80 

Osceola 80 

Paper  Rind   87 

Paper-Rind  St.  Michael 87 

Parson 96 

Parson  Brown    81 

Pineapple    88 

Prata    89 

Riverside  Navel   , 93 

Ruby    91 

Sanford  Blood   92 

Sanford's  Sweet  Blood  92 

Saul  Blood  93 

Silver    89 

St.  Michael   (Blood)    .  93 


INDEX.  585 

PAGE 

Sweet  orange  varieties — Continued. 

St.  Michael's  Egg  75 

Stark   81 

Starts  Favorite  81 

Surprise 97 

Sustain    98 

Tardiff    89 

Valencia  Late   90 

Washington   Navel    93 

Whitaker    82 

White 90 

Sweet  oranges 27 

—California  introduction    29 

— early  literature  of  27 

— introduction  of 2C 

Swift,   P.,   quoted 367 

Swingle,  W.  T.,  bulletin  by 561 

Taber,  G.   L.,   quoted    207 

Tangierines   37 

Tankage 307 

Teague,  C.  C.,  quoted  356,  419 

Temperatures,   injurious    339 

Tents  and  treatment  537 

Tents,  McFarland's 361 

—Painter's   361 

Tent  protection  361 

Tetranychus   sex-maculatus    521 

Thermometers    338 

Thermostat 339 

Tillage,  benefits  of    263 

Timber  protection 228 

Top-working   193 

Trademarks 463 

Transplanting,  Reed  system    260 

Tree-digging 259 

Tree  labels   262 

— peddlers   250 

— pruner,  Waters 381 

Trees,   cost   of . .  251 


586  CITRUS  FRUITS  AND   THEIR  CULTURE. 

PAGE 

Trees,  Cost  of — Continued. 

— per  acre  239 

— purchasing    250 

— setting    247 

Trifoliate  orange    15 

— hybrids   21,24 

— introduction  of    67 

— seeds    169 

— stock    203 

— varieties   67 

Triphrasia  aurantiola   8 

Trunk,  effects  of  cold  on  342 

Turtle-back  scale    506 

— treatment  of  507 

Twigs,  effect  of  cold  on  341 

Unarmored    scales    506 

Van  Deman,  H.  E.,  bulletin  by  561 

Varieties    347 

— recommended    565 

— selecting    247 

— lists    565 

Velvet  Bean    288 

— nitrogen  in   289 

Wagons,  field   412 

Walls  and  fires  360 

Washing  fruit   414 

Water  influences   227 

— protection    360 

Watering  pot  plants   396 

Watering  trees    257 

Watson,  A.,  quoted   47 

Wax 180 

Waxed  cloth   180 

—twine    181 

Wax  scale  509 

— treatment  for 510 

Webber,  H.  J.,  bulletins  by  561 

— crosses  by  21 

Whale-oil  soap  398,  529,  532 

Whip-grafting    ..194 


INDEX.  587 

PAGE 

White-fly    516 

— treatment  for 520 

White  scale  509 

White,  W.  N.,  quoted 48 

— reference  to  work  by  532 

Whitner,  J.  U.,  reference  to  562 

Wickson,  E.  J.,  reference  to  562 

—quoted  249,  329 

Wind-breaks  228,  360 

Windmill  power  326 

Wiring  sprouts  380 

Wood  fires  352 

Woodworth,  C.  W.,  bulletins  by 562 

—quoted  537,  540 

Wounds,  treatment  of 382 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


OCT  9  1985 


OCT  101935 


Dtf-a* 


7    1935 


ii  EC 


5\1S35 


r.K.  -•  *••  ^ 


B35^-, 


7Jan52CFC 


,r 


LD  21-100m-7,'33 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


